RESUMEN
Background: The Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has had a strong impact on eating behavior. To maintain health and well-being, correct nutrition is essential, especially when the immune system is under pressure. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlation between emotional aspects and the eating behavior of a group of people living in Sicily during the lockdown due to COVID-19. Methodology: We used a cross-sectional survey design with an anonymous online questionnaire, administered through technological means. Results: During the COVID-19 pandemic, 91 participants experienced high stress (PSS = 18.14 ± 4.1), and eating was associated with emotional behaviors (DEBQ EM = 41.74 ± 10.9). Stress correlated positively with the emotional and external aspects of eating behaviors. Conclusion: The present study showed that the COVID-19 lockdown caused high stress with a worsening in eating behaviors. The study participants had difficulty in adequately coping with some emotions and feelings, developing an 'addiction' to food.
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COVID-19 , Pandemias , Control de Enfermedades Transmisibles , Estudios Transversales , Humanos , SARS-CoV-2RESUMEN
Agraphia is defined as the disruption of the previously intact writing skills due to an acquired brain damage. Stroke remains the most common cause of language impairment; however, writing disorders, including agraphia, are underestimated in patients with stroke. In this regard, we report two patients presenting with pure agraphia as an early symptom of stroke. Both patients complained of at least two difficulties in visualizing letter formation beforehand, the frequent need for verbal cues, misuse of lines and margins, poorly legible signature, and writing and thinking at the same time (e.g., creative thinking and taking notes). They underwent brain magnetic resonance imaging which revealed a small lacunar infarction of the left insula and external capsule (patient 1) and a small hemorrhagic lesion in the posterior limb of the left internal capsule (patient 2). To our knowledge, this is the first report on pure agraphia as the presenting symptom of stroke. We suggest that all patients with acute agraphia, even when presenting as an isolated symptom, should be evaluated for stroke, in order to better facilitate its diagnosis and treatment.
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Agrafia/etiología , Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagen , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética/métodos , Accidente Vascular Cerebral Lacunar/diagnóstico por imagen , Accidente Cerebrovascular/complicaciones , Agrafia/patología , Cápsula Externa/diagnóstico por imagen , Humanos , Cápsula Interna/diagnóstico por imagen , Masculino , Persona de Mediana EdadRESUMEN
The present study is aimed at further exploring structural and functional correlates of fatigue in Relapsing- Remitting Multiple Sclerosis (RRMS) patients by using a combined approach by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and a Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI). The physiopathology of fatigue in MS is still poorly understood, although a variety of pathogenic mechanisms has been proposed. Our working hypothesis is that diffuse microstructural white matter damage may subtend the cortico-subcortical functional disconnection described in patients with MS and fatigue. We enrolled 30 RRMS patients (mean age 39±13; age range 24-63 years) with mild neurological impairment Expanded Disability Status Scale <3.5, divided into two groups on the basis of their fatigue severity scale (FSS) scoring (cutoff ≥ 4). All the patients underwent a neurological evaluation, a brain MRI acquisition (including DTI study) and a neurophysiological assessment by means of TMS in a pre-movement facilitation paradigm. Our data showed a significant mean diffusivity (MD) increase (p=0.036) in left thalamo-frontal reconstructions in the MS patients with fatigue compared to those classified as non-fatigued. Moreover, significant correlations were observed between FSS scale and MD as well as planar coefficient (CP) values extracted from frontal-thalamic connections bilaterally. Instead, the pre-movement facilitation showed a significant difference between the groups with particular regard to the Reaction Time- MEP50ms amplitude (p=0.03). Our work confirms that fatigue is associated with a disruption of brain networks involved in motor preparation processes, depending on several frontal-thalamic pathways. Such findings can have an important role when dealing with fatigue management in MS patients and could be eventually used as prognostic marker of MS course.
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Encéfalo/diagnóstico por imagen , Fatiga/diagnóstico por imagen , Esclerosis Múltiple Recurrente-Remitente/diagnóstico por imagen , Adulto , Encéfalo/fisiopatología , Imagen de Difusión Tensora , Evaluación de la Discapacidad , Fatiga/fisiopatología , Humanos , Persona de Mediana Edad , Esclerosis Múltiple Recurrente-Remitente/fisiopatología , Neuroimagen , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Estimulación Magnética Transcraneal , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: Sativex® is an exclusive cannabinoid-based drug approved for the treatment of spasticity due to Multiple Sclerosis (MS). The most common side effects include dizziness, nausea, and somnolence. However, it is still under debate whether the drug could cause negative cognitive effects. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of Sativex® on functional and psychological status in cannabis-naïve MS patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: All the study participants (i.e. 40 patients affected by MS) underwent a specific clinical and neuropsychological assessment to investigate spasticity and associated symptoms, besides the cognitive and psychiatric domains commonly impaired in MS, before and after 1 and 6 months of Sativex® administration. RESULTS: After the treatment, we did not observe any significant neurobehavioral impairment in all the patients, but one. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that Sativex® treatment does not significantly affect the cognitive and neurobehavioral functions. However, the study supports the relevance of an extensive neuropsychological evaluation in MS patients selected for the drug administration, in an attempt to early detect the uncommon but important neurobehavioral side effects.
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Extractos Vegetales/efectos adversos , Cannabidiol , Dronabinol , Combinación de Medicamentos , Estudios de Seguimiento , Humanos , Esclerosis Múltiple/tratamiento farmacológico , Espasticidad Muscular/tratamiento farmacológico , Extractos Vegetales/administración & dosificación , Extractos Vegetales/uso terapéuticoRESUMEN
It has been proposed that a neural signature of aware pain perception could be represented by the modulation of gamma-band oscillation (GBO) power induced by nociceptive repetitive laser stimulation (RLS). The aim of our study was to correlate the RLS-induced GBO modulation with the Nociception Coma Scale-Revised (NCS-R) scores (a validated scale assessing possible aware pain perception in patients with chronic disorders of consciousness), in an attempt to differentiate unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) patients from minimally conscious state (MCS) ones (both of them are awake but exhibit no or limited and fluctuant behavioral signs of awareness and mentation, and low and high NCS-R scores, respectively). In addition, we attempted to identify those among UWS patients who probably experienced pain at covert level (i.e. being aware but unable to show pain-related purposeful behaviors, which are those sustained, reproducible, and voluntary behavioral responses to nociceptive stimuli). Notably, the possibility of clearly differentiating UWS from MCS patients has outmost consequences concerning prognosis (worse in UWS) and adequate pain treatment. RLS consisted in 80 trains of three laser stimuli (delivered at 1Hz), at four different energies, able to evoke Aδ-fiber related laser evoked potentials. After each train, we assessed the NCS-R score. EEG was divided into epochs according to the laser trains, and the obtained epochs were classified in four categories according to the NCS-R score magnitude. We quantified the GBO absolute power for each category. RLS protocol induced a strongly correlated increase in GBO power and NCS-R score (the higher the laser stimulation intensity, the higher the NCS-R, independently of stimulus repetition) in all the MCS patients, thus confirming the presence of aware pain processing. Nonetheless, such findings were present even in five UWS individuals. This could suggest the presence of covert pain processing in such subjects, despite the low NCS-R scores. In conclusion, RSL-induced GBO power evaluation could be helpful in the differential diagnosis between MCS and UWS patients, besides the clinical assessment, and in identifying covert pain perception in some UWS individuals.
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Potenciales Evocados por Láser/fisiología , Percepción del Dolor/fisiología , Estado Vegetativo Persistente/fisiopatología , Adulto , Anciano , Análisis de Varianza , Electroencefalografía , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Índice de Severidad de la EnfermedadRESUMEN
Late arterial hypertension has been identified as a major predictor for morbidity and mortality in aortic coarctation (AoC) patients. Few data are available about efficacy and tolerability of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors vs beta-blockers in young AoC patients. This study aimed to evaluate the tolerability and efficacy on 24-h blood pressure (BP) and left ventricular mass/height(2.7) (LVMI), of atenolol vs enalapril. We enrolled consecutive AoC hypertensive patients with (a) no history of BP treatment or after >48 h of withdrawn, (b) aged 6-20 years, (c) body mass index (BMI) <90th percentile for age and sex, (d) >12 months from a successful AoC repair and (e) no major associated cardiovascular abnormalities. All patient were evaluated with 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring, standard echocardiography, strain-strain rate imaging, at enrolment, 3, 6 and 12 months of treatment. We studied 51 AoC patients (13±3.9 years, BMI: 21.4±4.3 kg m(-2)). Patients were randomly assigned at atenolol treatment (n=26), or enalapril treatment (n=25). The mean follow-up duration was 11±2 months. Both drugs were able to significantly reduce 24-systolic BP (SBP; atenolol: 133±11 mm Hg vs 124±16 mm Hg, P=0.016; enalapril: 135±6 mm Hg vs 127±7 mm Hg, P=0.001). Only enalapril was able to significantly reduce LVMI (47±12 vs 39.6±10 g m(-)(2.7), P=0.016). Only in atenolol group in two cases (7.7%) drug withdrawal was needed because of adverse events. Enalapril and atenolol are similarly effective in reducing SBP. However, only enalapril demonstrated a significant reduction of LVMI. In no case, enalapril was stopped because of adverse events.
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Antagonistas de Receptores Adrenérgicos beta 1/uso terapéutico , Inhibidores de la Enzima Convertidora de Angiotensina/uso terapéutico , Antihipertensivos/uso terapéutico , Coartación Aórtica/cirugía , Atenolol/uso terapéutico , Presión Sanguínea/efectos de los fármacos , Procedimientos Quirúrgicos Cardíacos , Enalapril/uso terapéutico , Hipertensión/tratamiento farmacológico , Adolescente , Antagonistas de Receptores Adrenérgicos beta 1/efectos adversos , Inhibidores de la Enzima Convertidora de Angiotensina/efectos adversos , Antihipertensivos/efectos adversos , Coartación Aórtica/complicaciones , Coartación Aórtica/diagnóstico , Coartación Aórtica/fisiopatología , Atenolol/efectos adversos , Niño , Enalapril/efectos adversos , Femenino , Humanos , Hipertensión/diagnóstico , Hipertensión/etiología , Hipertensión/fisiopatología , Italia , Masculino , Estudios Prospectivos , Factores de Tiempo , Resultado del Tratamiento , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
Nocturnal enuresis is a common disorder in childhood, but its pathophysiological mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Iatrogenic nocturnal enuresis has been described following treatment with several psychotropic medications. Herein, we describe a 6-year-old child who experienced nocturnal enuresis during treatment with the antihistamine cetirizine. Drug rechallenge was positive. Several neurotransmitters are implicated in the pathogenesis of nocturnal enuresis, including noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine. Antihistamine treatment may provoke functional imbalance of these pathways resulting in incontinence.
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Cetirizina/uso terapéutico , Antagonistas de los Receptores Histamínicos H1 no Sedantes/uso terapéutico , Enuresis Nocturna/inducido químicamente , Rinitis/tratamiento farmacológico , Cetirizina/efectos adversos , Niño , Femenino , Antagonistas de los Receptores Histamínicos H1 no Sedantes/efectos adversos , Humanos , Enfermedad Iatrogénica , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
Exercise causes changes in the heart in response to the hemodynamic demands of increased systemic and pulmonary requirements during exercise. Understanding these adaptations is of great importance, since they may overlap with those caused by pathological conditions. Initial descriptions of athlete's heart focused mainly on chronic adaptation of the left heart to training. In recent years, the substantial structural and functional adaptations of the right heart have been documented, highlighting the complex interplay with left heart. Moreover, there is evolving evidence of acute and chronic cardiac damage, mainly involving the right heart, which may predispose subjects to atrial and ventricular arrhythmias, configuring an exercise-induced cardiomyopathy. The aim of this article is to review the current knowledge on the physiologic and pathophysiologic changes in the right heart in highly trained athletes.
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Cardiomegalia Inducida por el Ejercicio/fisiología , Ventrículos Cardíacos/fisiopatología , Hipertrofia Ventricular Derecha/fisiopatología , Resistencia Física , Deportes , Adaptación Fisiológica , Humanos , Modelos CardiovascularesRESUMEN
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a clinically heterogeneous condition. Although its pathophysiology is not completely understood, neurophysiologic and neuroimaging data have disclosed functional abnormalities in the networks linking frontal cortex, supplementary motor and premotor areas, striatum, globus pallidus, and thalamus (CSPT circuits). By means of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) it is possible to test inhibitory and excitatory circuits within motor cortex. Previous studies on OCD patients under medication have demonstrated altered cortical inhibitory circuits as tested by TMS. On the other hand there is growing evidence suggesting an alteration of sensory-motor integration. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate sensory-motor integration (SAI and LAI), intracortical inhibition, and facilitation in drug-naïve OCD patients, using TMS. In our sample, we have demonstrated a significant SAI reduction in OCD patients when compared to a cohort of healthy individuals. SAI abnormalities may be related to a dysfunction of CSPT circuits which are involved in sensory-motor integration processes. Thus, it can be speculated that hypofunctioning of such system might impair the ability of OCD patients to suppress internally triggered intrusive and repetitive movements and thoughts. In conclusion, our data suggest that OCD may be considered as a sensory motor disorder where a dysfunction of sensory-motor integration may play an important role in the release of motor compulsions.
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Inhibición Neural/fisiología , Trastorno Obsesivo Compulsivo/fisiopatología , Corteza Sensoriomotora/fisiopatología , Estimulación Magnética Transcraneal/métodos , Adulto , Electromiografía , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Corteza Motora/fisiopatología , Distribución Aleatoria , Estimulación Magnética Transcraneal/instrumentaciónRESUMEN
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Pediatric obesity is an important health problem representing a major public health concern worldwide in the last decades. An isolated elevation of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) with normal levels of thyroid hormones is frequently found in obese children. It has been named Isolated Hyperthyreotropinemia or Subclinical Hypothyroidism (SCH) and may be considered a consequence of obesity. Evidence exists that SCH is related to impairment of both systolic and diastolic myocardial function in the adult population. The aim of our study is to establish if obesity-related SCH influences myocardial function in children. METHODS AND RESULTS: We examined 34 obese children and adolescents with SCH and 60 obese children with normal TSH levels who underwent Doppler echocardiographic to evaluate myocardial function. Global systolic function as assessed by Ejection Fraction (EF) was comparable between groups, however Right Ventricle pressure global systolic function and pressure were significantly reduced in SCH group. Mitral annulus peak systolic (MAPSE) excursion lateral and MAPSE septum resulted significantly reduced in SCH group. Tissue Doppler imaging peak systolic motion (TDI-S) was reduced in SCH group. Diastolic function also showed significant modifications in SCH group. CONCLUSION: These results suggest possible involvement of cardiac function in obese children with SCH resulting in both abnormal diastolic function and reduced longitudinal systolic function. This new insight into cardiovascular consequences of obesity-related SCH in children could influence clinical approach to such patients by pediatric endocrinologists.
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Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/fisiopatología , Hipotiroidismo/fisiopatología , Obesidad Infantil/fisiopatología , Adolescente , Glucemia/metabolismo , Enfermedades Cardiovasculares/complicaciones , Niño , HDL-Colesterol/sangre , Diástole/fisiología , Ecocardiografía Doppler , Femenino , Ventrículos Cardíacos/fisiopatología , Humanos , Hipotiroidismo/complicaciones , Estudios Longitudinales , Masculino , Válvula Mitral/fisiopatología , Obesidad Infantil/complicaciones , Sístole/fisiología , Hormonas Tiroideas/sangre , Triglicéridos/sangreRESUMEN
Factors that compete to establish heart failure (HF) are not completely known. In the last years the several technological improvements allowed us to deeply study the molecular and genetic aspects of this complex syndrome. This new approach to HF based on molecular biology new discoveries shows us more clearly the pathophysiological bases of this disease, and a future scenery where the genetics may be useful in the clinical practice, as screening of high risk populations, as well as in the diagnosis and therapy of underlying myocardial diseases. The purpose of this review was to analyse the molecular, genetic and epigenetic factors of HF. We described the molecular anatomy of the sarcomere and the pathogenesis of the heart muscle diseases, abandoning the previous monogenic theory for the concept of a polygenic disease. Different actors play a role to cause the illness by themselves, modifying the expression of the disease and, eventually, the prognosis of the patient.
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Epigenómica , Insuficiencia Cardíaca/genética , Desmosomas/genética , Regulación de la Expresión Génica , Interacción Gen-Ambiente , Humanos , Mutación , Contracción MiocárdicaRESUMEN
Although the association between PFO and cryptogenic stroke is well shown in young adults, the causality is still unclear. The pathogenetic mechanism of ischemic stroke related to PFO is not entirely understood. Indeed, besides the well-known paradoxical embolism, formations of thrombi in situ, especially in the presence of ASA, a higher incidence of atrial fibrillation have been often observed. Cerebral sinus venous thrombosis may be due to local inflammation or to acquired or genetic thrombophilia including hyperhomocysteinemia. We report a case of a young man presenting with a cerebellar infarction probably secondary to a paradoxical brain-to-brain embolism, in which the only detectable embolic source was a cerebral vein thrombosis.
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Infartos del Tronco Encefálico/diagnóstico por imagen , Cerebelo/diagnóstico por imagen , Venas Cerebrales/diagnóstico por imagen , Foramen Oval Permeable/diagnóstico por imagen , Embolia Intracraneal/diagnóstico por imagen , Trombosis de la Vena/diagnóstico por imagen , Adulto , Infartos del Tronco Encefálico/etiología , Foramen Oval Permeable/complicaciones , Humanos , Embolia Intracraneal/etiología , Masculino , Ultrasonografía Doppler Transcraneal/métodos , Trombosis de la Vena/complicacionesAsunto(s)
Fibrilación Atrial/inducido químicamente , Electrocardiografía/efectos de los fármacos , Ginkgo biloba/efectos adversos , Fitoterapia/efectos adversos , Extractos Vegetales/efectos adversos , Taquicardia Ventricular/inducido químicamente , Adulto , Fibrilación Atrial/fisiopatología , Femenino , Estudios de Seguimiento , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Taquicardia Ventricular/fisiopatologíaRESUMEN
Although leukoaraiosis can be considered as a part of the normal aging process, it is strongly associated with stroke, cognitive impairment and other disabilities. The pathogenesis of leukoaraiosis is poorly understood, even if chronic ischemia with consequent arteriolosclerosis probably due to endothelial dysfunction has been suggested. To date, treatment focuses only on prevention of lesion formation and progression by aggressive control of risk factors, beginning at an early age and continuing throughout life. L-Arginine, a semi-essential amino acid, is a precursor of NO in the reaction catalyzed by endothelial nitric oxide synthase and, it has been recently found to importantly influence endothelial function. Arginine supplementation has been demonstrated to be safe and effective therapy for many health conditions, particularly vascular diseases such as intermittent claudication, angina pectoris, erectile dysfunction and MELAS. Thus we hypothesize that, since a lack of endothelium-derived NO may be responsible for several features of LA, long-term administration of high oral doses of L-Arg may slow LA progression and the associated functional impairment.
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Arginina/administración & dosificación , Circulación Cerebrovascular/efectos de los fármacos , Leucoaraiosis/tratamiento farmacológico , Arginina/farmacología , Arginina/uso terapéutico , Humanos , Modelos TeóricosAsunto(s)
Antiarrítmicos/uso terapéutico , Bloqueo Atrioventricular , Síndrome de QT Prolongado , Torsades de Pointes , Bloqueo Atrioventricular/diagnóstico , Bloqueo Atrioventricular/tratamiento farmacológico , Bloqueo Atrioventricular/genética , Diagnóstico Precoz , Electrocardiografía , Femenino , Humanos , Recién Nacido , Síndrome de QT Prolongado/diagnóstico , Síndrome de QT Prolongado/tratamiento farmacológico , Síndrome de QT Prolongado/genética , Masculino , Linaje , Torsades de Pointes/diagnóstico , Torsades de Pointes/tratamiento farmacológico , Torsades de Pointes/genéticaRESUMEN
Life expectancy is still reduced in aortic coarctation (AoC) patients despite a successful repair because of late arterial hypertension and atherosclerosis. Masked hypertension (MH) consists of an elevated daytime or awake ambulatory blood pressure (BP) in the presence of a normal BP on conventional measurement at the office. To assess the prevalence of MH among AoC normotensive young patients successfully treated and to evaluate the impact of MH on left ventricular (LV) geometry and function.We studied 76 AoC patients (mean age 14.5±5.7 years, male 64%). According to 24 h ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM) our sample was divided in real normotensive patients (Group RN, n=40) and MH patients (Group MH, n=36). There was an increased pressure gradient in the aortic arch (15 mm Hg±4 vs 13 mm Hg±4.7, P<0.05), increased LV mass (51 g m(-2.7)±13 vs 46 g m(-2.7)±12, P<0.05), in MH AoC patients. Regional longitudinal deformation properties of the basal septal segment (-15%±2.4 vs -20%±5, P<0.01) and LV twist values (14°±1.6 vs 12°±1.9, P<0.0001) were reduced in the MH group. There is a high prevalence of MH in young patients with repaired AoC, which is associated with abnormal LV structure and function. Clinicians should consider 24 h ABPM measurements in apparently normotensive patients followed up for AoC repair.
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Coartación Aórtica/cirugía , Procedimientos Quirúrgicos Cardiovasculares , Ventrículos Cardíacos/patología , Ventrículos Cardíacos/fisiopatología , Hipertensión Enmascarada/complicaciones , Hipertensión Enmascarada/epidemiología , Adolescente , Presión Sanguínea , Monitoreo Ambulatorio de la Presión Arterial , Niño , Ecocardiografía , Femenino , Estudios de Seguimiento , Ventrículos Cardíacos/diagnóstico por imagen , Humanos , Masculino , Hipertensión Enmascarada/fisiopatología , Prevalencia , Análisis de Regresión , Estudios Retrospectivos , Disfunción Ventricular Izquierda/epidemiología , Disfunción Ventricular Izquierda/etiología , Disfunción Ventricular Izquierda/fisiopatología , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
AIM: Contrast-induced nephropathy (CIN) is most commonly defined as acute renal failure occurring within 48-72 h of exposure to intravascular radiographic contrast medium that is not attributable to other causes. In international literature a 25% increase in serum creatinine levels or an increase in absolute values of 0.5 mg/dL from baseline has been suggested to define CIN. The reported incidence of CIN varies widely, ranging from 2% to 50%. This variability results from differences in the presence or absence of risk factors. With a retrospective analysis authors evaluated the use of NaCl saline hydration and N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) to prevent CIN in different populations of patients at high and low risk undergoing coronary artery angiography. METHODS: From January 2007 to December 2008, 597 patients underwent coronary artery angiography with a low osmolarity contrast agent. Nephrotoxic drugs such as diuretics, metformin, ACE-I and ARBs were stopped at least 24 h before the procedure. The population was divided into two groups: group A (high risk 342 patients, 57.2%) identified for the presence of at least one risk factor such as diabetes, age >65 years, baseline creatinine >1.4 mg/dL and group B (low risk 255 patients, 42.8%) for the absence of any of the risk mentioned above. Only group A was treated with a saline hydration (1 mL/kg/h) plus NAC 600 mg 12 h before and 12 h after the procedure. RESULTS: The overall incidence of CIN was 6.7% (40 patients). In particular, the incidence of CIN was 4.4% (15 patients) in the group A and 9.8% (25 patients) in the group B respectively (P=0.017). Interestingly, the Contrast Index (volume administrated/theoretical maximum volume) was significantly lower in group B (P<0.005). In the multivariate analysis, including risk factors such as age, diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterol-mia, current smoke, baseline creatinine level, Contrast Index and hydration, the last variable was the only one inversely correlated independently with the incidence of CIN (P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The hydration with saline and NAC is an effective and low-cost tool in preventing CIN in patients undergoing coronary artery angiography and, according to the current guidelines, should be used in all high-risk patients. Present results show that even in patients at low risk for CIN, hydration could be useful: in fact, despite the Contrast Index was significantly lower in this population, the incidence of CIN was greater, thus suggesting a potential role for hydration also in the low-risk population.