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Study Design: Scoping review Objective: To study the design, clinical setting and outcome measures used in spinal cord injury rehabilitation publications. Methods: A literature search on PubMed and Medline was conducted focusing on articles published between 1990-2016 and using "traumatic SCI", "functional outcomes", "rehabilitation", "work" and "return to work" as outcomes. Studies were categorized based on design (intervention, including RCTs vs. non-intervention studies), settings (inpatient vs. outpatient vs. transition), and outcome measures used (impairment vs. function vs. participation/integration vs. quality of life vs. symptoms). Work-related studies were categorized independently. Results: Five hundred forty-four articles met the inclusion criteria. Of these, 234 were interventional studies, including 23 RCTs. Studies were evenly divided among inpatient, outpatient and transition settings. Of the 234 interventional studies, 143 used functional evaluations. Sixty-one different functional instruments were used, with a predominant use of the Functional Independence Measure (61 times) and an additional use of SCI-specific measures, i.e. Spinal Cord Independence Measure and Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique (13 times each). Fifty-one studies measured mobility, while only three measured hand functions. The work-related sub-analysis revealed 32 intervention studies (no RCTs), of which 15 used functional evaluations and only three focused on tetraplegia. Conclusion: Our study revealed a paucity of intervention trials and RCTs, indicating a dearth of knowledge that would be needed to establish evidence-based practice guidelines. This is particularly true for tetraplegia. While standard measures of function were frequently used, providing valuable data, there is no consensus about what exact outcome measure to use. Using newer measurement techniques, for instance based on the application of item response theory, should be considered to enhance uniformity.

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OBJECTIVE: The objective for this manuscript is two-fold: determine the scope of clinical rehabilitation research involving burn-injured persons and assess whether research outcomes include function, return to needed, and desirable routines. Has this research addressed rehabilitation needs of the burn injured? METHODS: We performed a scoping review of literature (1990-2016) using the method of Arksey and O'Malley. Search terms included "rehabilitation", "function", "burn injury" and "work". Two independent reviewers identified articles that met criteria for abstract and full review. Variables of interest were counts of the number of intervention studies, studies performed in outpatient settings/inpatient settings, or both; count of the distribution of outcome measures that included impairment, function, participation, return to prior roles and percent of burns rehabilitation publications as a function of total rehabilitation articles published. RESULTS: Sixty-four articles were selected for review and 22 employed an intervention. Nine articles were intervention trials that used functional measures. Of the 22 intervention trials 3 (14%) were performed while subjects were inpatients, 9 (41%) while they were outpatients, and 10 (45%) while they were both. There were 67 articles that met inclusion for work-related studies. Fourteen were intervention trials, 9 utilized functional outcomes and 5 used impairment outcomes exclusively. Less than 1% of clinical rehabilitation research addresses burns injury and <1% of the randomized trials in rehabilitation relates to burn injury CONCLUSIONS: There are few studies, few intervention trials and among these, very few that use function or return to community based activity as outcomes for people with burn injury.

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INTRODUCTION: Understanding the impact of disease on function and improving functional outcomes is an important goal of rehabilitation. This scoping review analyzes 25 years of published traumatic brain injury (TBI) clinical rehabilitation research (CRR) to determine the frequency with which function is a research goal. METHODS: The review protocol was prepared by experienced clinical researchers in the field. We used these search terms: "moderate traumatic brain injury" and "severe traumatic brain injury" and "functional outcomes"; and "rehabilitation" and "educational outcomes" or "cognition" or "community roles" or "community integration" "behavior" or "neuropsychology" or "quality of life", or "vocational outcomes" or "work" or "return to work". Publications from January 1, 1990-December 31, 2016 were included. RESULTS: 1,815 articles met initial criteria, of which 202 were intervention studies, 84 were randomized controlled trials and 353 prospective non-intervention studies. The combination of intervention and prospective non-intervention studies (n = 555) were analyzed for the kind of measurement tools used. Impairment measures (60%) and symptom measures (43%) either singly or in combination were most frequently used. Measures of function were employed in fewer than 30%. For single outcomes, 95 publications used impairment measures, 60 used symptoms and only18 used function. There were 117 studies that used neurocognitive measures. Participation/societal integration evaluation tools were used for community integration(n = 77) employment (n = 50) and independent living status (n = 37). DISCUSSION: This scoping review identifies a need for additional types of clinical research in the field of TBI CRR. Much of the research is aimed at mitigating impairment and controlling symptoms rather than promoting function. Future efforts by the CRR community studying TBI should address this need.

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OBJECTIVES: To assess the association of payer status and mortality in hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients. STUDY DESIGN: For this retrospective observational study, we used the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2000 to 2010. Adults with complete data on medical questionnaires, HCV RNA, insurance types, and mortality follow-ups were included. METHODS: We used Cox proportional hazards models to evaluate independent associations of insurance type with mortality in HCV-infected individuals. These models were rerun in the subset of HCV-positive subjects to determine the association of insurance type with mortality. The data used in this study predated the implementation of the Affordable Care Act. RESULTS: Among 19,452 eligible participants, 311 (1.4%) were HCV positive. HCV-positive patients were older, were more likely to be non-Hispanic black and male, and had higher prevalence of hypertension (all P <.001). HCV-positive patients were also less likely to have private insurance and more likely to be covered by Medicaid or be uninsured relative to HCV-negative patients (P <.001). Among HCV-positive patients, after adjustment for confounders, those with Medicaid coverage had an increased risk of mortality compared with those with private insurance (hazard ratio [HR], 6.31; 95% CI, 1.22-29.94) and uninsured individuals (HR, 8.83; 95% CI, 1.56-49.99). CONCLUSIONS: Patients who have HCV are more likely to be uninsured or covered by Medicaid. HCV-positive patients with Medicaid have an increased mortality risk compared with those with private insurance. Given the high burden of HCV infection and adverse prognosis among individuals covered by Medicaid, policy makers must prioritize funding and supporting Medicaid programs.

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INTRODUCTION: With the significant clinical and economic burden of chronic HCV, effective treatment must be provided efficiently and appropriately. VBM is predicated upon improving health outcomes (clinical and quality) while optimizing the cost of delivering these outcomes. This review explores the concepts of VBM and how it can be used as a strategy for HCV eradication, using the United States as a case example. Once treated with interferon-based regimens, patients with HCV experienced low cure rates, very poor health-related quality of life (HRQoL), decreased work productivity and significant costs. In this context, the old treatment of HCV produced little value to the patient and the society. However, the development of new antiviral regimens for HCV which are free of interferon, has greatly improved treatment success rates as documented with very high cure rates and by improving patient-reported outcomes (PROs), including HRQoL. However, the short-term economic investment to deliver this curative treatment to all HCV-infected patients can be sizeable. In contrast, if one takes the long-term view from the societal perspective, these new treatment regimens can lead to savings by reducing the costs of long-term complications of HCV infection. CONCLUSIONS: All of the necessary tools are now available to implement strategies to eradicate HCV. The new all oral direct acting antivirals brings value to the patients and the society because it leads to improvements of clinically important outcomes. Furthermore, the costs associated with these treatment regimens can be recovered by preventing the future economic burden of HCV-complications.

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GOALS/BACKGROUND: We aimed to assess temporal changes in the different types of liver disease (LD) cases and outcomes from emergency departments (EDs) across the United States. STUDY: We used data from the National Inpatient Survey database from 2005 to 2011. The International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9) clinical modification codes identified hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), alcoholic liver disease (ALD), nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and other LDs including autoimmune hepatitis. We excluded cases without LD, nonhepatocellular carcinoma-related cancers, human immunodeficiency virus infection, or those with missing information. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals. Controls were matched to cases without LD. RESULTS: During the study period, 20,641,839 cases were seen in EDs. Of these, 1,080,008 cases were related to LD and were matched to controls without LD (N=19,557,585). The number of cases with LD increased from 123,873 (2005) to 188,501 (2011) (P<0.0001). Among cases with LD, diagnosis of HCV, HBV, and ALD remained stable during the study years (41.60% vs. 38.20%, 3.70% vs. 2.80%, and 41.4% vs. 38.5%, respectively), whereas NAFLD doubled [6.00% of all LD (2005) to 11.90% of all LD (2011) (P<0.0001)]. Diagnosis of LD in the ED independently predicted increased patient mortality [odds ratio, 1.20 (1.17 to 1.22)]. CONCLUSIONS: The number of LD cases presenting to EDs is increasing, and a diagnosis of LD is associated with a higher patient mortality for those admitted through the ED. There is a dramatic increase of NAFLD diagnoses in the ED.

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Before the patient protection and affordable care act (ACA), young adults (20 to 34) had the highest uninsured rates in the United States (US) and frequently sought care in emergency departments (EDs).We aimed to determine if there was a measurable effect of expanded coverage, specifically the dependent coverage provision and Medicaid expansion, on the payer mix of young adults in EDs.We performed a retrospective cross-sectional study of ED utilization among young adults across the US using the national hospital ambulatory medical care survey (NHAMCS) (2005-2015).We examined the effect of health reform changes on the prevalence and odds of having an insurance type among ED utilizers (19-30) in 3 time periods (2005-2010), (2011-2013), and (2014-2015). Additionally, we compared the national and ED payer mix proportions among 19 to 25 and 26 to 30-year-olds.Our results indicate significant proportional changes in the national and ED payer mix relative to a pre-ACA time period. The 2 greatest changes to the national payer mix were the reduction in the proportion of uninsured/self-payers and the increase in the proportion covered by Medicaid. Furthermore, the dependent coverage provision was effective in increasing the proportion of those (19-25) utilizing private insurance coverage. Lastly, there is now a lower proportion of uninsured young adults in the ED, and an increased proportion of those covered by Medicaid.The change in payer mix among young adults has potential long-term consequences for the provision of emergency department services in the U.S.

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Dyslipidemia is one of the common risk factors for NAFLD and is associated with cardiovascular (CV) mortality, which is the most common cause of death in NAFLD. Lipid-lowering agents (LLAs) are used to reduce CV events in the general population. Our aim was to assess whether the use of LLAs in patients with NAFLD can reduce the risk of CV mortality. We used the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey mortality linked files. Mortality was determined from the National Death Index records through 2011. NAFLD was diagnosed by ultrasound after exclusion of other causes of liver disease. After inclusion and exclusion, the cohort consisted of 2,566 patients with NAFLD (45.8% < 45 years of age, 52.8% male, 75.4% white). Those who were taking LLAs were more likely to be older, non-Hispanic white, and had significantly higher rates of diabetes mellitus (DM), hyperlipidemia, hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and history of CV disease (CVD) (all P< 0.01). In our multivariate analysis, DM was an independent predictor of overall mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]: 1.79 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.40-2.30]) and CV mortality (aHR: 1.89 [95% CI: 1.08-3.30]). History of CVD was associated with both overall (aHR: 2.03 [95% CI: 1.57-2.63]) and CV mortality (aHR: 3.69 [95% CI: 2.23-6.08]). In contrast, the use of statins and other LLAs was not associated with reduction in overall (aHR = 0.95 [95% CI: 0.37-2.44] and aHR = 1.43 [95% CI: 0.99-2.07]) and CV mortality (aHR = 1.20 [95% CI: 0.26-5.54] and aHR = 1.63 [95% CI: 0.70-3.76]). Conclusion: The use of statins and other LLAs did not reduce the increased risk of overall or CV mortality in NAFLD.

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Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)-related cirrhosis and cryptogenic cirrhosis (CC) have become leading indications for liver transplantation (LT) in the US. Our aim was to compare the trends, clinical presentation, and outcomes for transplant candidates with NASH and CC.The Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients (1994-2016) was used to select adult LT candidates and recipients with primary diagnoses of NASH and CC without hepatocellular carcinoma.Two lakh twenty-three thousand three hundred ninety-one LT candidates were listed between 1994 and 2016. Of these, 16,214 (7.3%) were listed for CC and 11,598 (5.2%) for NASH. Before 2004, NASH was seldom coded for an indication for LT, but became more common after 2009. Averaged across the study period, CC candidates compared with NASH candidates were younger and had fewer conditions of metabolic syndrome (MS). CC patients were more likely to have MS components in comparison to candidates with other chronic liver diseases (CLDs) (all P < .0001). For most of the study period, patients with CC or NASH were similarly more likely to be taken off the list due to deterioration or death, with to patients with other CLDs. Post-LT data were available for 14,052 transplant recipients with NASH or CC. With the exception of post-transplant diabetes, the outcomes of patients transplanted for CC and NASH were similar to those of other CLD patients.Number of LT due to CC and NASH cirrhosis is increasing. In the past decade, there is a shift from LT listing diagnosis from CC to NASH potentially related to increased awareness about NASH in transplant centers in the US.

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BACKGROUND: Hepatic fibrosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) independently predicts mortality. Given liver biopsy's invasive nature, non-invasive method to assess hepatic steatosis and fibrosis provides NAFLD risk stratification algorithm in clinical practice. NAFLD fibrosis score (NFS) is simple and non-invasive predictive model recommended by American Association for the Study of Liver Disease (AASLD) Guideline to identify patients with NAFLD with fibrosis risk. The aim of this study is to assess long-term outcomes of subjects with significant non-alcoholic steatofibrosis (NASF) as established by ultrasound (US) and NFS. METHODS: Used National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) with National Death Index-linked Mortality Files. NAFLD diagnosis established by the presence of moderate to severe hepatic steatosis on US without other causes of chronic liver disease (alcohol consumption <20 gr/day, hepatitis B surface-antigen negative, anti-hepatitis C virus antibody negative, transferrin saturation <50%). Significant hepatic fibrosis was estimated by high NFS (>0.676) and calculated with previously published formula. Subjects with NAFLD and high NFS have significant NASF. RESULTS: NHANES III included 20 050 adult participants. 2515 participants complete data and NAFLD with 5.1% (n=129) meeting criteria for significant SF. Subjects with significant SF were older, had higher body mass index, waist circumference and the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) scores and higher rates of comorbidities (diabetes, congestive heart failure (CHF), stroke; all p<0.001). After median of 207 months of follow-up, overall mortality in NAFLD cohort was 30.0% (n=754). Crude mortality higher in subjects with significant SF (67.4% vs 28.0%, p<0.001). In multivariate survival analysis, predictors of overall mortality included significant SF (adjusted HR (aHR): 1.37; 95% CI 1.07 to 1.76, p=0.01), older age (aHR:1.08; 95% CI 1.07 to 1.09 per year), male gender (aHR:1.44; 95% CI 1.24 to 1.67), black race (aHR:1.24; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.48)), history of hypertension (aHR:1.40; 95% CI 1.20 to 1.64), diabetes (aHR:1.69; 95% CI 1.43 to 2.00), CHF (aHR:1.77; 95% CI 1.38 to 2.261), stroke (aHR:1.84; 95% CI 1.38 to 2.48) and smoking (aHR:1.74; 95% CI 1.47 to 2.07) (all p<0.02). Sensitivity analysis showed that the best association of SF with mortality is higher at NFS threshold of 0.80 (aHR:1.41; 95% CI 1.09 to 1.83, p=0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Significant NASF determined non-invasively is an independent predictor of mortality. These data should help clinicians to easily risk-stratify patients with NAFLD for close monitoring and treatment considerations in clinical trial setting.

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Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a chronic liver disease with an increasing global prevalence associated with tremendous clinical, economic, and health-related quality-of-life burden. Clinically, NAFLD is considered the liver manifestation of metabolic syndrome. However, diagnosing NAFLD presents significant challenges due to the limited noninvasive and accurate diagnostic tools available to not only accurately diagnose nonalcoholic steatohepatitis but also to stage hepatic fibrosis, the major predictor of long-term outcomes, including mortality.

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Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is recognized as a global health problem and as a common cause of chronic liver disease. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) carries an increased risk for development of advanced liver disease. Lifestyle modifications with diet and exercise have been the initial management recommendation. However, these changes are difficult to achieve and sustain overtime. There are pharmacologic agents being considered for treatment of NASH. Some target insulin resistance and others focus on oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis. There is a great deal of efforts to develop therapeutic regimens for patients with NASH and NASH with significant fibrosis.

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Fatigue is a common symptom. Diagnosis is difficult. Fatigue is often a complex symptom. In the recent years, fatigue has gained considerable amount of attention. It has 2 major types, central and peripheral, which may occur together or alone. Although fatigue has many strong relations with depression and sleep disorders, it is a separate entity. For the diagnosis of fatigue, self-reports and patient-reported outcomes are highly valuable tools because these methods can reflect patients' perceptions. Treating the underlying disease with newly developed direct-acting antivirals often improves the perceived fatigue. Healthy lifestyle changes are the cornerstone of the treatment.

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Abstract: With the increase in the prevalence of obesity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has become among the leading causes of chronic liver disease in the pediatric age group. Once believed to be a "two-hit process", it is now clear that the actual pathophysiology of NAFLD is complex and involves multiple pathways. Moreover, NAFLD is not always benign, and patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are at increased risk of developing advanced stages of liver disease. It has also been shown that NAFLD is not only a liver disease, but is also associated with multiple extrahepatic manifestations, including cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and low bone mineral density. Although the data is scarce in the pediatric population, some studies have suggested that long-term mortality and the requirement of liver transplantation will continue to increase in patients with NAFLD. More studies are needed to better understand the natural history of NAFLD, especially in the pediatric age group.