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Honor cultures are characterized by a heightened sensitivity to reputation threats and strong expectations for the defense of honor. U.S. states vary in the extent to which they express the cultural norms of honor, but researchers have frequently relied upon a dichotomous classification that differentiates states as honor or dignity states. We created and validated a continuous, six-item index of honor norms and values across all U.S. states (Study 1). In Study 2, our honor index was correlated with historical variables theoretically associated with the genesis of honor cultures. In Study 3, we validated our honor index further by showing that it predicted several race-/ethnicity-specific outcomes that prior research has connected with honor (e.g., homicide rates, suicide rates). This new index equips researchers with a more nuanced understanding of U.S. honor cultures and a measure that can be used in future investigations.

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The surge in firearm sales from the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic have been linked to increases in firearm violence, which is of public concern given that having firearms in one's home is associated with increased risk for domestic violence and suicide. Consistent with pre-pandemic trends, individuals tended to purchase firearms for self-protection during COVID-19. Prior work indicates that protective firearm ownership is motivated not only by perceptions that the world (and one's local environment) is dangerous, but also by one's endorsement of masculinity norms found in U.S. cultures of honor (primarily southern and western states). Honor-based masculinity norms emphasis reputation defense, toughness, and an absolute intolerance of disrespect. The present research examined the relative motivating influences of various threat perceptions and masculine honor endorsement in predicting reasons for non-COVID-19 firearm ownership, firearm purchasing during COVID-19, and purchase intentions. Three separate samples (total N = 2483) of mostly White U.S. men completed online surveys during different months of the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants completed measures of their endorsement of masculine honor norms, factors associated with firearm purchasing (e.g., dangerous world beliefs, intolerance of uncertainty), and firearm purchasing behaviors. Results indicated that masculine honor endorsement was higher among (1) protective firearm owners compared to non-owners and non-protective owners, (2) firearm owners who purchased a firearm during COVID-19 compared to non-owners and non-purchasing owners, and (3) firearm owners with intentions to purchase firearms in the next year compared to those without intentions and undecided owners. Relative to other predictors (e.g., COVID-19 concerns, dangerous world beliefs), masculine honor endorsement was consistently the strongest predictor of these outcomes. Findings add to the literature by highlighting the strength of masculine honor endorsement in motivating (protective) firearm ownership. Implications for interpersonal violence and suicide are discussed.

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INTRODUCTION: Prior research has established individuals living in cultures of honor to be at higher risk for suicide. However, research has yet to examine how emotion regulation may play a role in explaining this link. The current research intended to address if those who endorse honor norms, who are keen to protect their reputation, might engage in emotional suppression as a way to avoid being seen as weak, thus heightening their risk for suicide. METHOD: Data were collected using a survey design across three studies (total N = 988). Studies 1 and 2 were cross-sectional designs with MTurk and undergraduate samples. Study 3 was conducted longitudinally using CloudResearch. RESULTS: Results demonstrated those higher in honor endorsement engage in emotional suppression to avoid being seen as weak (Study 1), that emotional suppression and subsequent depression indirectly explain the relationship between honor endorsement and suicide attempts (Study 2), and that relationships between honor endorsement and changes in suicidal ideation are explained by emotional suppression and depressive symptomology (Study 3). CONCLUSION: Findings provide needed insight into the daily emotional experiences of honor endorsers and how it may influence suicidality, providing a point of entry for clinicians to construct meaningful honor-oriented intervention programs.

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Prior research has shown that U.S. cultures of honor have higher rates of depression and suicide. While links between honor endorsement and suicide have been established in the literature, a direct test of the primary mechanism underlying this association (reputation damage leading to depression) has not yet been tested. The current study sought to address whether shifts in perceived reputation might be associated with higher levels of depression for honor endorsing individuals. An online sample of 305 participants were tracked across two time points, assessing perceived individual reputation and perceived family reputation, as well as depressive symptoms. Analyses revealed that higher levels of honor concern at Time 1 were linked with higher levels of depressive symptoms at Time 2, but only for those with low perceived reputation - these relationships held while controlling for the stability in reputation and depression across time points, as well as controlling for participants' gender. Findings provide the first empirical evidence that reputation damage may contribute to detriments in mental health in honor endorsers.

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Researchers have developed numerous individual differences measures to assess people's endorsement of honor ideology (i.e., beliefs regarding the importance of honor and reputation) with most ranging from 12-36 items in length. Despite having great utility, the length of these measures magnifies the costs associated with survey research, especially in research contexts that use large, representative samples (e.g., health surveys). The present study aimed to develop and validate single-item measures that assess participants' agreement with gender-specific honor prototypes, as well as short-form versions of the honor ideology for manhood (HIM) and honor ideology for womanhood (HIW) scales. An initial sample of participants (N = 879) completed single-item honor prototype measures, a battery of previously validated honor measures (including the HIM and HIW), and measures of constructs previously shown to be related to the dynamics of honor (e.g., aggression, firearm ownership). A second sample of participants (N = 100) completed the new measures, as well as an abbreviated battery of honor measures, to examine test-retest reliability. Results indicated that the new, brief measures were strongly correlated with both the original HIM and HIW as well as several other established honor measures. Moreover, the associations between these new measures and honor-related outcomes were nearly identical to those found with the original HIM and HIW. Our new measures also demonstrated acceptable test-retest reliability, despite being single-item scales. Overall, the present work provides preliminary support for several brief measures of honor endorsement that researchers can use when longer scales are not feasible.

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INTRODUCTION: Veteran total and firearm suicide rates are higher compared to the general population. Among the general population, total and firearm suicide rates are higher in US states deemed cultures of honor compared to non-honor states, likely because honor states have higher firearm ownership rates and fewer firearm laws. Considering that veterans tend to live in states with fewer firearm laws and that veteran population rates predict both statewide total and firearm suicide rates, it is possible that the elevated suicide rates seen in honor states in part due to those states having a greater presence of veterans compared to non-honor states. METHOD: Publicly available databases were used to obtain total and firearm suicide rates (per 100 k) for veterans and non-veterans, as well as our covariates (e.g., rurality). RESULTS: Veteran population proportions were higher in honor states than non-honor states. Veteran and non-veteran total and firearm suicide rates were higher in honor states compared to non-honor states. Statewide differences in all four suicide rates were indirectly explained by honor states having higher firearm ownership than non-honor states. CONCLUSIONS: These findings add to a growing body of literature showing that enacting firearm regulations may be a viable public health approach for preventing suicide.

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OBJECTIVE: White men in U.S. cultures of honor die by suicide at greater rates than other demographic groups. This finding has been attributed to factors such as the prevalence and use of firearms in men's suicide in honor states, as well as motivational risk factors (e.g., thwarted belongingness). Other features of honor cultures (e.g., physical aggression, risk-taking behaviors) suggest that honor-endorsing men may frequently experience painful and provocative events (PPEs), which, in turn, may facilitate practical capability for suicide. The present work tested this hypothesis and honor ideology's relationship to firearm ownership and storage practices. METHOD: In two samples of mostly White U.S. men-one undergraduate sample (N = 472, Mage  = 19.76) and one middle- to older adult sample (N = 419, Mage  = 65.17)-we assessed honor ideology endorsement, PPEs, practical capability for suicide, and firearm-related outcomes. RESULTS: Honor endorsement was greater among firearm owners (particularly self-protective owners), but it was unrelated to storage practices. Honor endorsement was positively associated with PPEs and practical capability. Additionally, the relationship between honor ideology and practical capability was indirectly explained by PPE exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight multiple avenues-PPEs, practical capability for suicide, (self-protective) firearm ownership-by which masculine honor norms may place men at risk for suicide.

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Across three experiments, participants were provided with a list of racist behaviors that purportedly were enacted from a fellow student but in fact were based on the participants' own behaviors. People consistently evaluated themselves as less racist than this comparison other, even though this other's racist behaviors were identical to their own. Studies 2a and 2b demonstrate this effect is quite robust and even occurs under social pressure and social consensus conditions in which participants were free to express their racial biases. Thus, it appears that people are less likely to base their racist trait ratings on behavioral evidence when evaluating themselves compared to when they are evaluating another. Taken together, this work provides evidence for the consistency and robustness of self-enhanced social comparisons as applied to the trait domain of racism. Further, this work sheds insight into why people deny they are racist when they act racist.

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