RESUMEN

High current liquid metal ion sources are well known and found their first application as field emission electric propulsion thrusters in space technology. The aim of this work is the adaption of such kind of sources in broad ion beam technology. Surface patterning based on self-organized nano-structures on, e.g., semiconductor materials formed by heavy mono- or polyatomic ion irradiation from liquid metal (alloy) ion sources (LMAISs) is a very promising technique. LMAISs are nearly the only type of sources delivering polyatomic ions from about half of the periodic table elements. To overcome the lack of only very small treated areas by applying a focused ion beam equipped with such sources, the technology taken from space propulsion systems was transferred into a large single-end ion implanter. The main component is an ion beam injector based on high current LMAISs combined with suited ion optics allocating ion currents in the µA range in a nearly parallel beam of a few mm in diameter. Different types of LMAIS (needle, porous emitter, and capillary) are presented and characterized. The ion beam injector design is specified as well as the implementation of this module into a 200 kV high current ion implanter operating at the HZDR Ion Beam Center. Finally, the obtained results of large area surface modification of Ge using polyatomic Bi2+ ions at room temperature from a GaBi capillary LMAIS will be presented and discussed.

RESUMEN

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to analyze whether health-related characteristics of elderly differ considering their income situation. METHODS: N=322 elderly were included in a quantitative survey (e. g., SF36, GDS, Barthelindex, IADL). The evaluation was conducted in consideration of housing (independent, outpatient, nursing homes, district). RESULTS: There were significantly higher values of diseases in the lower income than in higher income groups (F(316)=2,971; p=0,008; eta²=0,053). Furthermore the lower income groups were more often classified into long-term care level 2 (Chi²=25,36; p=0,009; C=0,283) associated with reduced abilities of daily living and lower scores on physical and mental wellbeing. Gender differences could not be found. CONCLUSIONS: Low-income elderly have a poorer health status than high-income elderly. Endeavors should be undertaken to improve prevention strategies to retain independence and quality of life of low-income elderly.

Asunto(s)

Enfermedad Crónica/economía , Enfermedad Crónica/epidemiología , Estado de Salud , Vivienda/economía , Renta/estadística & datos numéricos , Pobreza/economía , Anciano , Anciano de 80 o más Años , Enfermedad Crónica/psicología , Femenino , Evaluación Geriátrica/estadística & datos numéricos , Alemania/epidemiología , Vivienda/estadística & datos numéricos , Humanos , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Pobreza/psicología , Pobreza/estadística & datos numéricos , Prevalencia , Calidad de Vida/psicología , Factores Socioeconómicos

RESUMEN

We have carried out a series of measurements demonstrating the feasibility of using the Dresden electron beam ion source (EBIS)-A, a table-top sized, permanent magnet technology based electron beam ion source, as a charge breeder. Low charged gold ions from an AuGe liquid metal alloy ion source were injected into the EBIS and re-extracted as highly charged ions, thereby producing charge states as high as Au(60 +). The setup, the charge breeding technique, breeding efficiencies as well as acceptance and emittance studies are presented.

RESUMEN

Magnetic vortex cores are interacting with and can even be annihilated by artificial defects, such as holes. These defects have been fabricated by focused ion beam milling (FIB) into the magnetic domains, domain walls and the center of square-shaped vortices, known as Landau structures. We report the imaging of the magnetization dynamics of Landau structures containing holes by means of x-ray magnetic circular dichroism photo-emission electron microscopy (XMCD-PEEM). Due to the high lateral and temporal resolution of this method, the magnetic excitation spectrum, which is characteristic for the vortex-hole interaction, is investigated in detail. We find that the vortex core as well as domain walls can be trapped by small holes. With the help of micromagnetic simulations we show that the vortex gyrotropic motion frequency is enhanced, whereas the amplitude is significantly reduced in the case of non-centric holes in domain walls.

RESUMEN

While osteoporosis is a major public health concern, guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of low bone mass in the premenopausal population is lacking. Dual-energy x-ray absorptometry (DEXA) is a poor diagnostic tool to evaluate bone density in this population and the World Health Organization's definition of osteoporosis based on DEXA is not applicable to women before menopause. Bisphosphonates, while commonly used to treat postmenopausal osteoporosis, are not recommended in most premenopausal patients due to their long half-lives and side-effect profiles, therefore limiting the pharmacological interventions available. Secondary causes of low bone mass in premenopausal women include malnutrition, gastroenterological and hepatic disorders, endocrine disorders, and pharmaceutical use as well lifestyle characteristics. It is important to identify these risk factors in young women in order to encourage a lifestyle and a diet that minimize bone loss and to determine when pharmacologic intervention is necessary. In cases of secondary osteoporosis, treatment of the underlying disease process or cessation of the inciting medication, if possible, often results in normalized bone mass. Newer drugs with more benign side effect profiles and new methods of evaluating bone mass are being investigated and are likely to improve the evaluation and management of premenopausal women with low bone mass.

Asunto(s)

Osteoporosis/etiología , Premenopausia , Absorciometría de Fotón , Factores de Edad , Conservadores de la Densidad Ósea/efectos adversos , Conservadores de la Densidad Ósea/uso terapéutico , Femenino , Humanos , Estilo de Vida , Osteoporosis/diagnóstico , Osteoporosis/prevención & control

RESUMEN

A GaBi alloy liquid metal ion source has been studied. From an analysis of the source mass spectra as a function of emission current, a mechanism is suggested for the production of single- and double-charged ions. There is good agreement with the results of Swanson's investigations of a pure Bi source.

RESUMEN

For special purposes like writing ion implantation or ion mixing in the micrometer- or sub-micrometer range different ion species are needed. Therefore alloy liquid metal ion sources (LMISs) are used. The energy distribution of the ions from an alloy LMIS is one of the determining factors for the performance of a FIB column. Different source materials like Au(73)Ge(27), Au(82)Si(18), Au(77)Ge(14)Si(9), Co(36)Nd(64), Er(69)Ni(31), and Er(70)Fe(22)Ni(5)Cr(3) were investigated with respect to the energy spread of the different ion species as a function of emission current, ion mass and emitter temperature. The alloy LMISs discussed above have been used in the Rossendorf FIB system IMSA especially for writing implantation to fabricate sub-micrometer pattern without any lithographic steps. A Co-FIB was applied for the ion beam synthesis of CoSi(2) micro-structures. Additionally, the possibility of varying the current density with the FIB by changing the pixel dwell time was used for radiation damage investigations in Si and SiC at elevated implantation temperatures. Furthermore, a broad spectrum of ions was employed to study the sputtering process depending on temperature, angle of incidence and ion mass on a couple of target materials using the volume-loss method. Especially this technique was used for the fabrication of various kinds of micro-tools.

RESUMEN

Focused silicon beams are useful for direct write applications, e.g., lithography on silicon without the undesirable effect of substrate contamination. However, since pure silicon is not amenable to liquid metal ion source (LMIS) manufacture, a suitable alloy containing silicon has to be produced. This paper covers almost all fundamental aspects of a Au82Si18 eutectic, including the most detailed beam mass spectra reported to date of a AuSi source. A finding worthy of note in this investigation, manifested in the behaviour of the ion extraction voltage with temperature, is the abnormal behaviour of the surface tension coefficient of the alloy with temperature. An important deduction from this work, however, concerns the mechanisms responsible for the creation of doubly charged ions: reasons of self-consistency indicate that while Si2+ is directly field evaporated, Au2+ must form by the post-ionization of Au+. Finally, two different mechanisms seem to co-exist, as far as the production of cluster ions is concerned. While for cluster ions containing only a few atoms some sort of surface field-ionization mechanism might be responsible for their creation, for larger clusters, a droplet break-up mechanism, possibly by ion capture, seems very likely.

Asunto(s)

Aleaciones de Oro/química , Silicio/química , Aleaciones , Iones , Metales , Espectrometría de Masa por Ionización de Electrospray

RESUMEN

This paper reports on an extensive study of the characteristics of AuGeSi and CoNd liquid metal alloy ion sources (Focused Ion Beams From Liquid Metal Ion Sources, Research Studies Press, Taunton, Somerset, UK, 1991). Such characteristics include current-voltage curves and ion beam mass spectra. A careful investigation has been undertaken where the emitter temperature is the main variable experimental parameter. Theoretical models, or theoretical attempts in certain cases, tend to support the experimental results. The experimental results, in conjunction with existing theories, suggest that simply for reasons of self-consistency two mechanisms must be operative for the production of doubly-charged ions from the AuGeSi source: direct field-evaporation and post-ionisation.

RESUMEN

The selective and potent aminopeptidase N inhibitor [125I]RB 129 has been used for the radioautographic localization of this enzyme in rat brain, spinal cord and intestine. Brain microvessels and intestine brush-border cells were shown to present a high concentration of aminopeptidase N. Moreover, a labeling of various brain structures was observed. A very high level of binding occurred in the meninges, choroid plexus, pineal gland, paraventricular nucleus and pituitary gland. Moderate to high labeling was also observed in the cortex, caudate-putamen, subthalamic nucleus, central periaqueductal gray, thalamus, as well as in the dorsal and ventral horn of the spinal cord, which are known to contain a high concentration of enkephalins, opioid receptors and neutral endopeptidase. This co-localization confirms the physiological implication of aminopeptidase N in the inactivation of enkephalins accounting for the requirement of dual inhibition of neutral endopeptidase and aminopeptidase N to observe highly significant morphine-like effects induced by the protected endogenous opioid peptides. Aminopeptidase N was also visualized in moderate to high levels in other brain structures such as the hippocampus, nucleus accumbens, substantia nigra, hypothalamus (dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei), raphe nucleus, pontine nucleus, inferior olive, and in high concentration in the granular layer of cerebellum. In summary, aminopeptidase N has been visualized for the first time in numerous brain areas using the selective inhibitor [125I]RB 129. This iodinated probe could allow the ex vivo and in vivo localization of aminopeptidase N in various tissues to be investigated and may also be used to evaluate quantitative changes in aminopeptidase N expression in pathological situations. Aminopeptidase N, which preferably removes NH2-terminal neutral amino acids from peptides, has probably a host of substrates. Nevertheless, a certain in vivo selectivity could be achieved by the presence of the enzyme in structures where the peptide effector and its receptors are also co-localized.

Asunto(s)

Encéfalo/enzimología , Antígenos CD13/metabolismo , Monoyodotirosina/análogos & derivados , Monoyodotirosina/metabolismo , Neuronas/enzimología , Inhibidores de Proteasas/metabolismo , Médula Espinal/enzimología , Animales , Autorradiografía , Sitios de Unión/efectos de los fármacos , Sitios de Unión/fisiología , Vasos Sanguíneos/citología , Vasos Sanguíneos/enzimología , Encéfalo/citología , Diencéfalo/citología , Diencéfalo/enzimología , Mucosa Intestinal/citología , Mucosa Intestinal/enzimología , Radioisótopos de Yodo/metabolismo , Masculino , Mesencéfalo/citología , Mesencéfalo/enzimología , Metencéfalo/citología , Metencéfalo/enzimología , Neuronas/citología , Bulbo Olfatorio/citología , Bulbo Olfatorio/enzimología , Glándula Pineal/citología , Glándula Pineal/enzimología , Hipófisis/citología , Hipófisis/enzimología , Ensayo de Unión Radioligante , Ratas , Ratas Wistar , Médula Espinal/citología , Telencéfalo/citología , Telencéfalo/enzimología

RESUMEN

Although many factors have been found to be associated with caregiving behavior among preschool-age siblings, few studies have considered the older child's emotional responses to the distress of a younger sibling in the mother's absence. In this study, the authors considered both individual and family factors that predict older and younger sibling distress in a mother-absent situation designed to elicit caregiving behavior. For both older and younger siblings, the strongest predictor of distress following the mother's departure was distress in the other sibling, suggesting the importance of situational factors. Individual and family factors, however, were also found to predict child distress. Among older siblings, shy and sociable temperaments were associated with greater distress during the mother's absence. Higher levels of parenting stress were found to be associated with less distress among both older and younger siblings in the mother-absent situation. Results are discussed in terms of individual and family environment influences on the sibling relationship.

Asunto(s)

Afecto , Ansiedad de Separación/diagnóstico , Ansiedad de Separación/psicología , Cuidadores , Relaciones Madre-Hijo , Madres , Niño , Conducta Infantil/psicología , Preescolar , Femenino , Humanos , Masculino , Responsabilidad Parental , Estudios Prospectivos , Encuestas y Cuestionarios , Temperamento

RESUMEN

Aminopeptidase N (APN) is a zinc metallopeptidase involved in the inactivation of biologically active peptides. The knowledge of its precise distribution is crucial to investigate its physiological role. This requires the use of appropriate probes such as the recently developed highly potent and selective radiolabeled APN inhibitor 2(S)-benzyl-3-[hydroxy(1'(R)-aminoethyl)phosphinyl]propanoyl-L-3-[ (12 5)I]iodotyrosine ([(125)I]RB 129). Its binding properties were investigated using rat brain homogenates (K(d)=3.4 nM) or APN expressed in COS-7 cells (K(d)=0.9 nM). The specific binding was 95% at [K(d)], and preliminary autoradiography in intestine is promising. The decreased affinity of [(125)I]RB 129 (=10(-6) M) for the E(350)D APN mutant, supports the critical role of E(350) in the amino-exopeptidase action of APN.

Asunto(s)

Antígenos CD13/antagonistas & inhibidores , Antígenos CD13/metabolismo , Monoyodotirosina/análogos & derivados , Inhibidores de Proteasas/metabolismo , Inhibidores de Proteasas/farmacología , Sustitución de Aminoácidos/genética , Animales , Autorradiografía/métodos , Unión Competitiva , Encéfalo/citología , Encéfalo/enzimología , Antígenos CD13/genética , Células COS , Membrana Celular/enzimología , Membrana Celular/metabolismo , Ácidos Hidroxámicos/química , Ácidos Hidroxámicos/metabolismo , Mucosa Intestinal/metabolismo , Intestinos/enzimología , Radioisótopos de Yodo , Monoyodotirosina/química , Monoyodotirosina/metabolismo , Monoyodotirosina/farmacología , Mutación/genética , Fenilalanina/análogos & derivados , Fenilalanina/química , Fenilalanina/metabolismo , Inhibidores de Proteasas/química , Unión Proteica , Ratas , Proteínas Recombinantes/antagonistas & inhibidores , Proteínas Recombinantes/genética , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , Compuestos de Sulfhidrilo/química , Compuestos de Sulfhidrilo/metabolismo , Porcinos , Termodinámica , Transfección

RESUMEN

The study of the physiological roles of the membrane-bound zinc-aminopeptidase A (glutamyl aminopeptidase, EC 3.4.11.7) needs the design of efficient and selective inhibitors of this enzyme. An acute exploration of aminopeptidase A active site was performed by a combinatorial approach using (3-amino-2-mercapto-acyl)dipeptides able to fit its S(1), S(1)', and S(2)' subsites. This analysis confirmed that the S(1) subsite is optimally blocked by a glutamate or isosteric residues and demonstrated that the S(1)' subsite is hydrophobic whereas the S(2)' subsite recognizes preferentially negatively charged residues derived from aspartic acid. The optimization of these structural parameters led to the synthesis of nanomolar and subnanomolar inhibitors of aminopeptidase A such as H(3)N(+)CH(CH(2)CH(2)SO(3)(-))CH(SH)CO-Ile-(3-COOH)Pro that exhibits a K(i) of 0.87 nM. The best compounds were synthesized by a stereochemically controlled route. These first described highly potent inhibitors could allow studies about the role of physiological substrates of APA such as angiotensin II and cholecystokinin CCK(8) in the central nervous system.

Asunto(s)

Aminopeptidasas/metabolismo , Inhibidores Enzimáticos/metabolismo , Aminopeptidasas/antagonistas & inhibidores , Animales , Antígenos CD13/antagonistas & inhibidores , Antígenos CD13/metabolismo , Inhibidores Enzimáticos/química , Glutamil Aminopeptidasa , Espectroscopía de Resonancia Magnética , Estructura Molecular , Neprilisina/metabolismo , Peptidil-Dipeptidasa A/efectos de los fármacos , Peptidil-Dipeptidasa A/metabolismo , Conejos , Ratas , Proteínas Recombinantes/antagonistas & inhibidores , Proteínas Recombinantes/metabolismo , Estereoisomerismo , Porcinos

RESUMEN

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: The authors evaluate the functional changes in patients with cervical radiculopathy and increasing symptoms after provocative maneuvers at flexion, extension, axial rotation, and coupled motions of the cervical spine. METHODS: Twenty-one patients with cervical disc herniation (n = 17) or cervical spondylosis (n = 4) in whom symptoms were elicited at flexion, extension, axial rotation, and coupled motions of the cervical spine were studied. The patients were examined inside a positioning device by using a circular surface coil for signal reception. At neutral position (0 degrees) and at provocative positions sagittal T2-weighted turbo spin-echo, axial T2-weighted two-dimensional flash sequence, sagittal three-dimensional (3D) fast imaging with steady state precision sequence and coronal 3D double-echo-in-the-steady-state sequences were obtained. The 3D sequences were reformatted in the axial and oblique coronal planes perpendicular to the exiting nerve roots. The images were evaluated for the size of disc herniations, the foraminal size and cervical cord rotation or displacement at provocative position compared with neutral position (0 degrees). RESULTS: Compared with neutral position (0 degrees), change in size of disc herniation was not found in any (0%) of the provocative positions. In five (24%) patients cervical cord rotation or displacement was noted at axial rotation. The foraminal size increased at flexion, axial rotation to the opposite side of pain and flexion combined with axial rotation to the opposite side of the pain. The foraminal size decreased at extension combined with axial rotation to the side of the pain. A decrease or no change in foraminal size was observed at either extension or axial rotation to the side of the pain. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with cervical disc herniation or cervical spondylosis, exacerbated pain at defined provocative maneuvers is related more to changes in the foraminal size and to nerve root motion with, in some cases, cervical cord rotation or displacement than to changes in the size of herniated discs.

Asunto(s)

Vértebras Cervicales/fisiopatología , Desplazamiento del Disco Intervertebral/fisiopatología , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética/métodos , Osteofitosis Vertebral/fisiopatología , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Desplazamiento del Disco Intervertebral/diagnóstico , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética/instrumentación , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Variaciones Dependientes del Observador , Dolor/etiología , Postura , Osteofitosis Vertebral/diagnóstico

RESUMEN

The brain angiotensin (Ang) system plays an important role in the central control of vasopressin release. Using EC33, a selective aminopeptidase A inhibitor which blocks the metabolism of Ang II in Ang III, we previously reported that vasopressin release was under the control of Ang III and not Ang II. To determine accurately the action of EC33, the effects of intracerebroventricular injection of Ang peptides or EC33 on extracellular unit activity of vasopressinergic neurons in the supraoptic nucleus of urethane-anaesthetized rats were examined. Angiotensin II (15-30 ng) or Ang III (15 ng) increased the firing rate of all neurons tested. Conversely, EC33 (10 microg) reduced or completely abolished (30-60 microg) the basal firing rate for 4-6 min in all eight neurons tested. EC33 (30 microg) also inhibited the activity induced by 30 ng Ang II. It was concluded that the observed activity of Ang II required its conversion to Ang III and that endogenous Ang III may exert a tonic control on the basal firing level of vasopressinergic neurons.

Asunto(s)

Aminopeptidasas/antagonistas & inhibidores , Inhibidores Enzimáticos/farmacología , Neuronas/efectos de los fármacos , Vasopresinas/fisiología , Anestesia , Angiotensina II/administración & dosificación , Angiotensina II/farmacología , Angiotensina III/administración & dosificación , Angiotensina III/farmacología , Animales , Depresión Química , Electrofisiología , Inhibidores Enzimáticos/administración & dosificación , Glutamil Aminopeptidasa , Inyecciones Intraventriculares , Masculino , Neuronas/fisiología , Inhibidores de Proteasas/administración & dosificación , Inhibidores de Proteasas/farmacología , Ratas , Ratas Sprague-Dawley , Ácidos Sulfónicos/administración & dosificación , Ácidos Sulfónicos/farmacología , Uretano

RESUMEN

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to compare HASTE-sequence with T2-weighted TSE-sequence in the detection of cervical myelopathy and cervical spinal stenosis in kinematic MRI. METHODS: 24 patients with degenerative disease of the cervical spine were studied. Images were evaluated according to the following criteria: artifacts, delineation of the vertebra, disks and degenerative changes, grade of spinal stenosis (grade 0-3) and evaluation of the cervical spinal cord. RESULTS: Due to image blurring and artifacts, evaluation and delineation of the cervical spine was possible in all cases in the T2-weighted TSE-sequence, but only in 23 of 24 patients using HASTE-sequence. Differentiation between osteophytes and disks was obtained in most cases (23/24) in the T2-weighted TSE-sequence but none in the HASTE-sequence. Cervical myelopathy was observed in 4 patients in T2-weighted TSE images but only in two cases using HASTE-sequence. Compared to T2-weighted TSE-sequence spinal canal stenosis was underestimated using HASTE-sequence. CONCLUSION: T2-TSE-sequence is superior to HASTE-sequence in the delineation of anatomical structures of the cervical spine, the grading of cervical spinal stenosis and the evaluation of cervical myelopathy.

Asunto(s)

Vértebras Cervicales , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética/métodos , Enfermedades de la Médula Espinal/diagnóstico , Estenosis Espinal/diagnóstico , Adulto , Anciano , Estudios de Evaluación como Asunto , Femenino , Humanos , Imagen por Resonancia Magnética/instrumentación , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Fantasmas de Imagen , Compresión de la Médula Espinal/diagnóstico

RESUMEN

The acute and chronic effects of hypoglycemia on cognitive and psychomotor performance are reviewed. Studies involving pediatric and adult subjects, both with and without diabetes were evaluated. The preponderance of studies suggest that hypoglycemia can be an unintended yet frequent result of treatment of patients with IDDM. Significant cognitive and psychomotor deficits were reported even with mild episodes of hypoglycemia. Early age of diabetes onset and frequent episodes of hypoglycemia were found to be highly related to significant deficits in intellectual and academic performance. Patients evidencing performance deficits did not always report symptoms of hypoglycemia. Recovery of cognitive functioning lagged restoration of euglycemia but typically returned to baseline levels of performance. Recommendations for improved patient care are provided.

Asunto(s)

Cognición/fisiología , Hipoglucemia/fisiopatología , Desempeño Psicomotor/fisiología , Diabetes Mellitus Tipo 1/fisiopatología , Humanos

RESUMEN

This study evaluated two strategies to reduce anxiety behaviors which interfered with the daily tracheostomy care and ventilator maintenance of an eight-year-old ventilator-dependent boy. A multiple-baseline design (across ventilator and tracheostomy procedures) was used to evaluate the effectiveness of an information-only procedure and combined relaxation and cognitive distraction procedures. Partial-interval recording was used to measure heart rate, disruptive mouth noises, and demands and complaints to staff members. The patient's behavior did not change during a no-intervention baseline or during the information-only condition. Cognitive distraction and relaxation procedures were introduced, first during ventilator checks and then during tracheostomy care; corresponding decreases in heart rate, mouth noises, and demands and complaints were noted. Gains were maintained at one year follow-up. Results suggest that information alone may not effectively reduce anxiety behaviors for some ventilator-dependent patients unless additional anxiety-reduction procedures are implemented.

Asunto(s)

Trastornos de Ansiedad/prevención & control , Cuadriplejía/terapia , Respiración Artificial/psicología , Trastornos de Ansiedad/etiología , Trastornos de Ansiedad/fisiopatología , Niño , Frecuencia Cardíaca , Humanos , Masculino , Comunicación no Verbal , Terapia por Relajación , Respiración Artificial/enfermería

RESUMEN

To study the influence of ammonium on an antibiotic cultivation, mass transfer measurements of ammonium through microporous hydrophobic membranes using different stripping methods were carried out and compared. The higher overall mass transfer coefficients for ammonium were obtained with an acid stripping solution compared to water, vacuum, or sweeping air. A hollow fiber module for in situ removal of ammonium during cultivation was designed and operated in an external bypass to a 10-L fermentor. Compared to a control fermentation, the cell dry mass could be increased 2.6 times and the antibiotic concentration 8 times, if the in situ ammonium removal was in operation.

RESUMEN

Penicillin was recovered from mycel-containing fermentation broth by direct reactive extraction into a counter-current extraction decanter, Type CA 226-290 of the Westfalia Separator Co., at room temperature via steady state operation. Penicillin concentrations in the feed varied from 3 to 41 g L(-1), Amberlite LA-2 carrier concentrations from 7 to 20 g L(-1)and/or DITDA carrier concentrations from 7.2 to 84 g L(-1), the LA-2-to-penicillin mole concentration ratio from 4 to 6.4, and/or the DITDA-to-penicillin mole concentration ratio was maintained at 2. The throughputs of the fermentation broth (520 to 880 L h(-1)) of the solvent phase (200 to 860 L h(-1)) and the over all throughput (800 to 1750 L h(-1)) were high. Extraction degrees of 72 to 96% were achieved between pH 4.6 and 5.1. Without carriers in the same pH range, extraction degrees of only 17 to 19% were attained. By reducing the pH to 2.3 and in the absence of carriers, the degree of extraction was increased to 61%. However, during the extraction, 6.5% of the penicillin decomposed. At these high throughputs, the steady state was attained within 1 to 4 min. Through the mechanical stress, the length of the hyphae was reduced and the protein content of the broth was increased by 50 to 100%. However, this protein content had no appreciable influence on the phase separation.