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Burkholderia cepacia complex (BCC) is characterized by a complex taxonomy constituted by seventeen closely related species of both biotechnological and clinical importance. Several molecular methods have been developed to accurately identify BCC species but simpler and effective strategies for BCC classification are still needed. A single nucleotide primer extension (SNuPE) assay using gyrB as a target gene was developed to identify bacteria belonging to the B. cepacia (BCC) complex. This technique allows the successful detection and distinction of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and is effectively applied in routine medical diagnosis since it permits to analyze routinely many samples in a few times. Seven SNuPE primers were designed analyzing the conserved regions of the BCC gyrB sequences currently available in databases. The specificity of the assay was evaluated using reference strains of some BCC species. Data obtained enabled to discriminate bacteria belonging to the species B. multivorans, B. cenocepacia (including bacteria belonging to recA lineages III-A, III-C, and III-D), B. vietnamiensis, B. dolosa, B. ambifaria, B. anthina and B. pyrrocinia. Conversely, identification failed for B. cepacia, B. cenocepacia III-B and B. stabilis. This study demonstrates the efficacy of SNuPE technique for the identification of bacteria characterized by a complex taxonomical organization as BCC bacteria.

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AIM: To identify, by means of recA sequencing and multilocus sequence typing (MLST), Burkholderia cepacia complex (BCC) isolates of environmental and clinical origin, which failed to be identified by recA RFLP and species-specific PCR. METHODS AND RESULTS: By using recA sequence-based identification, 17 out of 26 BCC isolates were resolved at the level of species and lineage (ten Burkholderia cenocepacia IIIB, two Burkholderia arboris and five Burkholderia lata). By using MLST method, 24 BCC isolates were identified. MLST confirmed recA sequence results, and, furthermore, enabled to identify isolates of the BCC5 group, and showed relatedness with Burkholderia contaminans for one of the two isolates not identified. CONCLUSIONS: recA sequence-based identification allowed to resolve, at the level of species and lineage, 65.4%, of the BCC isolates examined, whilst MLST increased this percentage to 88.5%. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: BCC isolates previously not resolved by recA RFLP and species-specific PCR were successfully identified by means of recA sequencing and MLST, which represent the most appropriate methods to identify difficult strains for epidemiological purposes and cystic fibrosis patients management.

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The protein ataxin-3 contains a polyglutamine region; increasing the number of glutamines beyond 55 in this region gives rise to the neurodegenerative disease spinocerebellar ataxia type 3. This disease and other polyglutamine expansion diseases are characterized by large intranuclear protein aggregates (nuclear inclusions). By using full-length human ataxin-3, we have investigated the changes in secondary structure, aggregation behavior, and fibril formation associated with an increase from the normal length of 27 glutamines (Q27 ataxin-3) to a pathogenic length of 78 glutamines (Q78 ataxin-3). Q78 ataxin-3 aggregates strongly and could be purified only when expressed with a solubility-enhancing fusion-protein partner. A marked decrease in alpha-helical secondary structure accompanies expansion of the polyglutamine tract, suggesting destabilization of the native protein. Proteolytic removal of the fusion partner in the Q78 protein, but not in the Q27 protein, leads to the formation of SDS-resistant aggregates and Congo-red reactive fibrils. Infrared spectroscopy of fibrils reveals a high beta-sheet content and suggests a parallel, rather than an antiparallel, sheet conformation. We present a model for a polar zipper composed of parallel polyglutamine beta-sheets. Our data show that intact ataxin-3 is fully competent to form aggregates, and posttranslational cleavage or other processing is not necessary to generate a misfolding event. The data also suggest that the protein aggregation phenotype associated with glutamine expansion may derive from two effects: destabilization of the native protein structure and an inherent propensity for beta-fibril formation on the part of glutamine homopolymers.

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Burkholderia cepacia is a 'complex' in which seven genomic species or genomovars have so far been identified. It appears that all seven B. cepacia genomovars are capable of causing infections in vulnerable persons; in particular, the importance of Burkholderia multivorans (genomovar II) and B. cepacia genomovar III among cystic fibrosis isolates, especially epidemic ones, has been emphasized. In order to acquire a better comprehension of the genomovar composition of environmental populations of B. cepacia, 120 strains were isolated from the rhizosphere of maize plants cultivated in fields located in northern, central and southern Italy. The identification of the different genomovars was accomplished by a combination of molecular polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques, such as restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of 16S rDNA (ARDRA), genomovar-specific PCR tests and RFLP analyses based on polymorphisms in the recA gene whole-cell protein electrophoresis. ARDRA analysis allowed us to distinguish between all B. cepacia genomovars except B. cepacia genomovar I, B. cepacia genomovar III and Burkholderia ambifaria (genomovar VII). The latter genomovars were differentiated by means of recA PCR tests and RFLP analyses. Among the rhizospheric isolates of B. cepacia, we found only B. cepacia genomovar I, B. cepacia genomovar III, Burkholderia vietnamiensis (genomovar V) and B. ambifaria. B. cepacia genomovars I and III and B. ambifaria were recovered from all three fields, whereas B. vietnamiensis was detected only in the population isolated from the field located in central Italy. Among strains isolated from northern and southern Italy, the most abundant genomovars were B. ambifaria and B. cepacia genomovar III respectively; in contrast, the population isolated in central Italy showed an even distribution of strains among genomovars. These results indicate that it is not possible to differentiate clinical and environmental strains, or pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains, of the B. cepacia complex simply on the basis of genomovar status, and that the environment may serve as a reservoir for B. cepacia genomovar III infections in vulnerable humans.

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The influence of isolation medium on the biodiversity of Burkholderia cepacia strains recovered from the rhizosphere of Zea mays was evaluated by comparing the genetic diversity of isolates obtained by plating serial dilutions of root macerates on the two selective media TB-T and PCAT. From each medium, 50 randomly chosen colonies were isolated. On the basis of the restriction patterns of DNA coding for 16S rRNA (16S rDNA) amplified by means of PCR (ARDRA), all strains isolated from TB-T medium were assigned to the B. cepacia species, whereas among PCAT isolates only 74% were assigned to the B. cepacia species. Genetic diversity among the PCAT and TB-T isolates was evaluated by the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) method was applied to determine the variance component for RAPD patterns. Most of the genetic diversity (90.59%) was found within the two groups of isolates, but an appreciable amount (9.41%) still separated the two groups (P < 0.001). Mean genetic distances among PCAT isolates (10.39) and TB-T isolates (9.36) were significantly different (P < 0.0001). The results indicate that the two different isolation media select for B. cepacia populations with a different degree of genetic diversity. Moreover, a higher degree of genetic diversity was observed among strains isolated from PCAT medium than among those isolated from TB-T medium.

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In order to acquire a better understanding of the spatial and temporal variations of genetic diversity of Burkholderia cepacia populations in the rhizosphere of Zea mays, 161 strains were isolated from three portions of the maize root system at different soil depths and at three distinct plant growth stages. The genetic diversity among B. cepacia isolates was analysed by means of the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. A number of diversity indices (richness, Shannon diversity, evenness and mean genetic distance) were calculated for each bacterial population isolated from the different root system portions. Moreover, the analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) method was applied to estimate the genetic differences among the various bacterial populations. Our results showed that, in young plants, B. cepacia colonized preferentially the upper part of the root system, whereas in mature plants, B. cepacia was mostly recovered from the terminal part of the root system. This uneven distribution of B. cepacia cells among different root system portions partially reflected marked genetic differences among the B. cepacia populations isolated along maize roots on three distinct sampling occasions. In fact, all the diversity indices calculated indicated that genetic diversity increased during plant development and that the highest diversity values were found in mature maize plants, in particular in the middle and terminal portions of the root system. Moreover, the analysis of RAPD patterns by means of the AMOVA method revealed highly significant divergences in the degree of genetic polymorphism among the various B. cepacia populations.

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Abstract Burkholderia cepacia populations associated with the Zea mays root system were investigated to assess the influence of soil type, maize cultivar, and root localization on the degree of their genetic diversity. A total of 180 B. cepacia isolates were identified by restriction analysis of the amplified 16S rDNA (ARDRA technique). The genetic diversity among B. cepacia isolates was analyzed by the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique, using the 10-mer primer AP5. The analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) method was applied to estimate the variance components for the RAPD patterns. The results indicated that, among the factors studied, the soil was clearly the dominant one in affecting the genetic diversity of maize root-associated B. cepacia populations. In fact, the percentage of variation among populations was significantly higher between B. cepacia populations recovered from maize planted in different soils than between B. cepacia populations isolated from different maize cultivars and from distinct root compartments such as rhizoplane and rhizosphere. The analysis of the genetic relationships among B. cepacia isolates resulted in dendrograms showing bacterial populations with frequent recombinations and a nonclonal genetic structure. The dendrograms were also in agreement with the AMOVA results. We were able to group strains obtained from distinct soils on the basis of their origin, confirming that soil type had the major effect on the degree of genetic diversity of the maize root-associated B. cepacia populations analyzed. On the other hand, strains isolated from distinct root compartments exhibited a random distribution which confirmed that the rhizosphere and rhizoplane populations analyzed did not significantly differ in their genetic structure.http://link.springer-ny.com/link/service/journals/00248/bibs/38n3p273.html

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A Burkholderia cepacia population naturally occurring in the rhizosphere of Zea mays was investigated in order to assess the degree of root association and microbial biodiversity at five stages of plant growth. The bacterial strains isolated on semiselective PCAT medium were mostly assigned to the species B. cepacia by an analysis of the restriction patterns produced by amplified DNA coding for 16S rRNA (16S rDNA) (ARDRA) with the enzyme AluI. Partial 16S rDNA nucleotide sequences of some randomly chosen isolates confirmed the ARDRA results. Throughout the study, B. cepacia was strictly associated with maize roots, ranging from 0.6 to 3.6% of the total cultivable microflora. Biodiversity among 83 B. cepacia isolates was analyzed by the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique with two 10-mer primers. An analysis of RAPD patterns by the analysis of molecular variance method revealed a high level of intraspecific genetic diversity in this B. cepacia population. Moreover, the genetic diversity was related to divergences among maize root samplings, with microbial genetic variability markedly higher in the first stages of plant growth; in other words, the biodiversity of this rhizosphere bacterial population decreased over time.

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Four Burkholderia cepacia strains isolated from the rhizosphere and pathological samples of infected human patients were characterized at the molecular level by different methodologies, including the determination of 16S ribosomal rDNA sequence, restriction endonuclease analysis of total DNA, random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprinting and Southern hybridization with gene probes for nitrogen fixation and siderophore synthesis. The results indicate that the four strains cluster together within genus Burkholderia, but differ from one another. The DNA from the four strains hybridized to the nifA gene probe from Klebsiella pneumoniae, and an appreciable homology with the nifHDK structural genes of Azospirillum brasilense was demonstrated for one rhizosphere strain. Although the four isolates produced an ornibactin-like siderophore, they did not give hybridization with the pvdA probe for hydroxamate biosynthesis from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

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The phenotypic characteristics of four Burkholderia cepacia strains isolated from the rhizosphere and the clinical environment were compared. Tests included optimum growth temperature, utilization of carbon sources, production of HCN, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and siderophores, proteolytic activity, nitrogen fixation, inhibition of some phytopathogenic fungi, adherence to human mucosal and plant root epithelia, and greenhouse-based plant-growth promotion experiments using cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Results indicated that the strains of B. cepacia isolated from the rhizosphere differ markedly from their clinical counterparts. Strains isolated from the rhizosphere grew over a wider temperature range, fixed nitrogen and produced IAA, did not produce proteases, displayed a wider antibiosis against the phytopathogenic fungi studied, did not adhere to human uroepithelial cells, promoted growth of C. sativus and only produced a hydroxamate-like siderophore. In contrast, clinical isolates could not fix nitrogen or produce IAA, produced proteases, adhered to human uroepithelial cells, did not promote the growth of C. sativus and, in addition to a hydroxamate-like siderophore, produced pyochelin and salicylate siderophores. All four isolates exhibited the ability to adhere to the root tissue of C. sativus and were unable to produce HCN.

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