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The need for development and validation of in vitro hormone receptor transactivation assays as important alternative tools to study interactions with sex hormone receptors is outlined by international organisations, as such assays should be included in the OECD conceptual framework for the testing and assessment of endocrine active chemicals. Therefore as part of the European Union (EU)-sponsored 6th framework project ReProTect, the validation study with MELN cells, MCF-7 cells (ER+, estrogen receptor positive) which were stably transfected with the estrogen responsive gene ERE-betaGlob-Luc-SVNeo was set up. Standard operating procedures including a prescreen assay for unknown chemicals, an ER-agonist assay and an ER-antagonist assay were developed at the Flemish Institute for Technological Research, Belgium, and successfully transferred to Bayer Schering Pharma AG, Germany. Test results were obtained for 16 chemicals, and it was demonstrated that the MELN assay is transferable, robust and reproducible which allowed to rank chemical compounds according to their strong to weak affinity for the estrogen-alpha receptor, or identify negative chemicals within the test range up to 10(-5)M. Besides the screening for agonism, we demonstrated the suitability of MELN cells to test for antagonistic activity, which is of added value compared to current validated assays. As the MELN assay successfully passed the first modules of the ECVAM validation procedure, it now should be considered for further steps including the definition of a prediction model and application domain to get it accepted as an alternative screening assay, contributing to the 3R's with a reduction of animal experiments.

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Despite more than a decade of research in the field of endocrine active compounds targeting the androgen receptor (AR), and although suitable cell lines can be obtained, no validated human stably transfected androgen sensitive transactivation assay is available. Bayer Schering Pharma (BSP) and the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), partners within the EU-sponsored 6th framework project ReProTect, made first steps towards such a validation. A standard operation protocol (SOP) developed at BSP based on the androgen sensitive PALM cell line was transferred to VITO and its performance and transferability were thoroughly studied. The investigation followed a generic protocol prepared for all reporter gene assays evaluated within ReProTect, and in both laboratories at least three independent experiments were performed. The highest concentration to be tested was limited to 10 microM, if needed. A few compounds, 17alpha-methyltestosterone (17alpha-MT), vinclozolin and linuron, were studied using a real world scenario, i.e., assuming that their interaction with the AR was not known: A prescreening for agonism and true, competitive antagonism was used to select conditions such as the appropriate mode of action, and the working range excluding cytotoxicity for the final screening. All other compounds were tested according to the generic protocol: Compounds screened for agonism were the reference androgen 17alpha-methyldihydrotestosterone (MDHT), levonorgestrel, norethynodrel, progesterone, o,p'-DDT, and dibutylphthalate (DBP), while compounds screened for antagonism were the reference anti-androgen flutamide, prochloraz, o,p'-DDT, progesterone, norethynodrel, and DBP. Cytotoxicity was assessed in parallel as lactate dehydrogenase release. The prescreen classified 17alpha-MT as androgenic, vinclozolin and linuron as anti-androgenic and compounds were tested accordingly. In the absence of cytotoxicity, appropriate androgenic properties of reference and test compounds were detected by both laboratories, o,p'-DDT and DBP had no androgenic activity. Across the two laboratories EC(50)-values for MDHT, 17alpha-MT, and levonorgestrel varied by not more than a factor of 3.4, for norethynodrel by a factor of 9.7. Progesterone effects could not fully be evaluated, as frequently concentration response curves were incomplete. In the absence of cytotoxicity anti-androgenic properties of reference and test compounds were also detected in both laboratories. DBP, the putative negative reference compound, was inactive, norethynodrel rather showed agonistic properties. Progesterone was an antagonist at low concentrations, but agonistic properties were observed in one laboratory at high concentrations. Since the highest test concentration was limited to 10 microM, for some compounds no complete concentration response curves were obtained and estimation of EC(50)-values was less robust. Our data demonstrated that the SOP was transferable, and that the assay was able to rank compounds with strong, weak, and without affinity for the AR and to discriminate agonists and antagonists. The sensitivity of the assay could be improved further, if the limit of solubility or beginning cytotoxicity was chosen as the highest test concentration. The assay avoids the use of tissues from laboratory animals, and thus contributes to the 3R concept. Furthermore, it could be adjusted to an intermediate/high throughput format. On the whole, this PALM assay is a promising candidate for further validation.

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There is growing concern that some chemicals can cause endocrine disrupting effects to wild animals and humans. Therefore a rapid and reliable screening assay to assess the activity of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is required. These EDCs can act at multiple sites. Most studied mechanism is direct interaction with the hormone receptors, e.g. estrogen receptor. In this study the luciferase reporter gene assay using transgenic human MELN cells was used. Since cytotoxicity of the chemicals can decrease the luminescent signal in the transactivation assays, a cytotoxicity assay must be implemented. Mostly the neutral red (NR) assay is performed in parallel with the estrogenicity assay. To increase the reliability and cost-efficiency of the test, a method to measure estrogenicity and cytotoxicity in the same cell culture plate instead of in parallel plates was developed and evaluated. Therefore the NR-assay was compared with the CytoTox-ONE homogeneous membrane integrity assay. The latter measures LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) leakage based on a fluorometric method. For all compounds tested, the CytoTox-ONE test showed comparable curves and EC50-values to those obtained by the NR-assay. So the CytoTox-ONE kit, which seemed more sensitive than measurements of LDH-leakage based on a colorimetric method, is recommended to test cytotoxicity to MELN cells, with the advantage to use the same cells for ER-transactivation measurements. The chemicals tested in the optimised MELN assay showed estrogenic potencies comparable to those reported for several other transactivation assays.

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The estrogenic activity of compounds was evaluated in a comparative approach both with in vitro and in vivo assays. By comparing simultaneously obtained experimental data, we evaluated the differences in response sensitivity (by EC10) and concentration-response relationships (including EC50) in order to get an idea about the predictive value of in vitro assays for in vivo estrogenic potencies or effects in fish. Two human estrogen receptor-based assays, the MVLN-assay (transformed MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line) and the yeast estrogen screen (YES-screen) were used for the in vitro evaluation of the estrogenic potencies. An in vivo model with the female zebrafish (Danio rerio) with plasma vitellogenin (VTG) as a biomarker for exposure and the ovarian somatic index (OSI) as an effect endpoint was used for the in vivo work. Compounds tested were 17beta-estradiol (E2), estrone (E1), 17alpha-ethynylestradiol (EE2) and the alkylphenolic compound nonylphenol (NP). All compounds were found to be estrogenic in both in vitro assays and were able to induce VTG and to reduce the ovarian somatic index in female zebrafish. The MVLN-assay appeared up to 15 times more sensitive than the YES-screen. Concentration-response relationships, determined by EC10 and EC50 (concentration of test compound causing 10% or 50% effect compared to control) for VTG and OSI were of the same order of magnitude, indicating that VTG induction as an exposure biomarker can be predictive for effects on ovaries in females. We further demonstrated that for E1 and NP, the in vitro observed estrogenic potencies, based on EC50 values, were of the same order of magnitude as the in vivo estrogenic potencies. For EE2, a difference between in vitro and in vivo relative estrogenic potency was observed, being about 25 times more potent in vivo than could be expected based on the in vitro results. These experimental results showed the suitability of in vitro assays for screening purposes with qualitative assessment of estrogenicity, but they meanwhile point to the need of in vivo tests for an accurate hazard assessment for wildlife.

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Numerous environmental chemicals possess estrogen-like properties. At elevated doses, natural estrogens and environmental estrogen-like chemicals are known to produce adverse effects on humans and wildlife. Sources of potential exposure to endocrine disrupting compounds have to be identified for risk and hazard assessment. Extracts prepared from 16 selected water samples taken in Flemish rivers, effluents of municipal wastewater treatment plants and reservoirs for drinking water production were analysed for estrogenic activity with a cellular bioassay. Yeast cells, which are stably transfected with the DNA sequence of hER and which contain expression plasmids with the reporter gene lac-Z, encoding the enzyme beta-galactosidase, were used to measure receptor binding. Flemish rivers showed the highest estrogenic potency, compared to effluents of waste water treatment plants and reservoirs which showed low induction factors (beta-galactosidase production) relative to solvent control conditions. By comparison with a standard curve for 17 beta-estradiol (E2), estrogenic potency in water samples was calculated as E2-equivalents and ranged from below detection limit (approximately 2.75 ng E2/l) up to 81.4 ng/l E2-equivalents. About 7 water samples had more than 10 ng/l E2-equivalents. These elevated levels of E2-equivalents are likely to exert significant adverse effects on reproduction success of wildlife, which should be verified with in vivo studies.

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Bacterial bile salt hydrolysis is considered a risk factor for the development of colon cancer because of the risk of forming harmful secondary bile salts after an initial deconjugation step. In this study, the influence of enhanced bacterial bile salt transformation by the bile salt hydrolase-active Lactobacillus reuteri was studied in batch culture using the microbial suspension of the Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem; (SHIME), which was supplemented with oxgall at 5 g/l or 30 g/l. Changes in the fermentative capacity of the microbial ecosystem and the (geno)toxic properties of the SHIME supernatants were investigated. Increasing concentrations of oxgall inhibited the fermentation. Transient cell toxicity was observed for samples supplemented with 5 g oxgall/l, while samples with 30 g oxgall/l exhibited toxicity. The results of the haemolysis test suggest that the detrimental effects were probably due to the membrane-damaging effects of bile salts. In all cases, the adverse effects could be counteracted by the addition of 7.5 +/- 0.5 log10 CFU L. reuteri/ml. Plausible mechanisms for the protective properties of L. reuteri could involve a precipitation of the deconjugated bile salts and a physical binding of bile salts by the bacterium, thereby making the harmful bile salts less bioavailable.

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The Na+,K+-ATPase (the sodium pump) plays a crucial role in ion transport in the fish gill. An immunocytochemical method has been optimized, using the mouse monoclonal antibody IgG alpha5, raised against the alpha subunit of the avian sodium pump, to localize Na+,K+-ATPase in fish gill cells. The method appears to be successful for the immunolocalization of Na+,K+-ATPase in both paraffin-embedded gill tissue sections and primary cultures of fish gill epithelial cells. The immunostaining has demonstrated that Na+,K+-ATPase-positive cells are mainly localized on the primary lamellae, in the interlamellar region, which is in agreement with the distribution of ion-transporting cells, also called chloride cells, as shown by electron microscopy. Na+,K+-ATPase-positive cells have been demonstrated for the first time in primary cultures of gill epithelial cells. Comparative labeling studies of primary cultures have shown that sites of Na+,K+-ATPase-positive cells correspond to sites of cells labeled with dimethylaminostyrylmethyl-pyridiniumiodine, a fluorescent mitochondrial probe for ion-transporting cells. The immunocytochemical detection method for Na+,K+-ATPase in cells is proposed as an easy and specific Na+-transport-related method to characterize and localize ion-transporting cells in primary cultures and in tissue sections of fish gill epithelium.

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The national program for tuberculosis control has been decentralized in the dispensaries of Dosso Department since 1985. The physician appointed as departmental coordinator at the Departmental Center for Tuberculosis has organized training and ensured a close follow-up of the activities through supervision and valuation. In spite of an important decentralization and an increase of the sputum examinations, the case detection has not been improved (mean detection rate equals to 0.28/1000. In opposite, the cure rate has been increased appreciably (from 24% to 52%) and the noncompliers rate has decreased (from 42% to 19%). The follow-up of the program has got important side benefits on the other activities. The efficiency of the decentralization and of the follow-up is discussed, the costs of the start and use have been estimated. It has been recommended to integrate the program to the other health activities and to delegate the follow-up to the physicians in change in the Medical Center.

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