RESUMEN
PURPOSE: Infertility affects one in eight women in the USA. In vitro fertilization (IVF) is an effective but costly treatment that lacks uniform insurance coverage. We evaluated the current insurance coverage landscape for IVF in America. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 58 insurance companies with the greatest state enrollment and market share, calculated to represent the majority of Americans with health insurance. Individual companies were evaluated for a publicly available policy on IVF services by web-based search, telephone interview, or email to the insurer. Coverage status, required criteria, qualifying risk factors, and contraindications to coverage were extracted from available policies. RESULTS: Fifty-one (88%) of the fifty-eight companies had a policy for IVF services. Thirty-five (69%) of these policies extended coverage. Case-by-case coverage was stated in seven policies (14%), while coverage was denied in the remaining nine (18%). The most common criterion to receive coverage was a documented diagnosis of infertility (n = 23, 66%), followed by care from a reproductive endocrinologist (n = 9, 26%). Twenty-three (45%) of the companies with a policy had at least one contraindication to coverage. Three companies (6%) limited the number of IVF cycles to be covered, capping payments after 3-4 lifetime cycles. CONCLUSION: Most Americans with health insurance are provided a public policy regarding IVF. However, there is great variation in coverage and requirements to receive coverage between insurers. Coupled with inconsistencies in state-level mandates and available choices for employer-sponsored plans, this may limit coverage of IVF services and, therefore, access to infertility treatment.
Asunto(s)
Fertilización In Vitro , Infertilidad , Humanos , Femenino , Estados Unidos/epidemiología , Estudios Transversales , Seguro de Salud , Infertilidad/epidemiología , Infertilidad/terapia , Cobertura del SeguroRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: To compare outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycles with adequate versus inadequate response to the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist trigger rescued with the use of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) retrigger, and to identify risk factors associated with an inadequate trigger. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Private practice. PATIENT(S): Women at high risk for ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome who underwent an autologous IVF cycle and used GnRH agonist to trigger oocyte maturation before oocyte retrieval. INTERVENTION(S): Patients were triggered with GnRH agonist for final oocyte maturation before retrieval. Patients with an inadequate response, defined by low post-trigger serum LH and P concentrations or failure to recover oocytes after aspiration of several follicles, were retriggered with hCG. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Number of oocytes retrieved, fertilization rate, clinical pregnancy, and live birth. RESULT(S): Two percent of patients triggered with GnRH agonist had an inadequate response and were retriggered with hCG. There was no statistically significant difference in clinical outcomes between the cycles that were retriggered with hCG and successful GnRH agonist triggers. Low body mass index, low baseline LH, and higher total dosage of gonadotropins required for stimulation were associated with an increased risk of having an inadequate response to the GnRH agonist trigger. CONCLUSION(S): A small minority of patients triggered with GnRH agonist had an inadequate response. Rescheduling of oocyte retrieval after hCG retrigger yielded similar IVF outcomes. Evaluation of trigger response based on serum LH and P concentrations is time dependent. Patient characteristics suggestive of hypothalamic hypofunction were predictive of an inadequate response to the GnRH agonist trigger.
Asunto(s)
Gonadotropina Coriónica/uso terapéutico , Fármacos para la Fertilidad Femenina/uso terapéutico , Hormona Liberadora de Gonadotropina/agonistas , Infertilidad/terapia , Leuprolida/uso terapéutico , Oocitos/efectos de los fármacos , Ovario/efectos de los fármacos , Inducción de la Ovulación/métodos , Adulto , Gonadotropina Coriónica/efectos adversos , Femenino , Fertilidad , Fármacos para la Fertilidad Femenina/efectos adversos , Fertilización In Vitro , Humanos , Infertilidad/diagnóstico , Infertilidad/fisiopatología , Nacimiento Vivo , Hormona Luteinizante/sangre , Recuperación del Oocito , Ovario/metabolismo , Ovario/fisiopatología , Inducción de la Ovulación/efectos adversos , Embarazo , Índice de Embarazo , Progesterona/sangre , Retratamiento , Estudios Retrospectivos , Factores de Riesgo , Insuficiencia del TratamientoRESUMEN
CONTEXT: Adrenalectomy is an experimental treatment option for select patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia who have failed medical therapy. After adrenalectomy, adrenal rest tissue can remain in extraadrenal locations, cause recurrent hyperandrogenism, and be difficult to localize. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to investigate the usefulness of positron emission tomography/computerized tomography (PET/CT) in identifying adrenal rest tissue. SUBJECT: A female with salt-wasting 21-hydroxylase deficiency who had bilateral adrenalectomy at age 17 yr presented with hyperandrogenism at age 32 yr. Pelvic magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound imaging were nondiagnostic for the source of androgen production. METHODS AND RESULTS: A baseline F-18 labeled fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (18F-FDG) PET/CT scan showed no active uptake; however, a second scan preceded by a 250-µg cosyntropin injection identified three areas of active uptake near both ovaries. Subsequent ovarian venous sampling showed elevations in 17-hydroxyprogesterone, androstenedione, and 21-deoxycortisol in both ovarian veins compared to a peripheral vein at baseline and more so after cosyntropin administration. At laparoscopy, three well-circumscribed nodules (2.4 × 0.9 × 1.3 cm, 1.2 × 1.5 × 1.5 cm, and 2 × 1.5 × 1 cm) lying lateral to the fallopian tubes adjacent to the broad ligaments were removed. The paraovarian nodules and previously removed adrenal glands had similar histology and immunohistochemistry. Postoperatively, androgen concentrations were undetectable, with no response to cosyntropin stimulation. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with CAH after an adrenalectomy may experience recurrent hyperandrogenism due to adrenal rest tissue. 18F-FDG PET/CT with cosyntropin stimulation accurately identified adrenal rest tissue not visualized with conventional imaging, allowing for successful surgical resection.
Asunto(s)
Glándulas Suprarrenales/diagnóstico por imagen , Hiperplasia Suprarrenal Congénita/diagnóstico por imagen , Cosintropina , Glándulas Suprarrenales/cirugía , Hiperplasia Suprarrenal Congénita/cirugía , Adrenalectomía , Adulto , Femenino , Humanos , Imagen Multimodal , Tomografía de Emisión de Positrones , Tomografía Computarizada por Rayos X , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: To examine the history of superovulation for ovulation induction, its contributions to reproductive medicine, and its impact on multiple births. DESIGN: A search of the relevant literature using PubMed and other online tools. RESULT(S): Infertility has been a condition known and studied for thousands of years. However, it was not until this past century that effective treatments were developed. With the advancement of our knowledge of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, therapies utilizing gonadotropins were developed to stimulate ovulation. Not only could we now treat anovulatory infertility but also induce superovulation for IVF. With these successes came consequences, including increased multiple pregnancies. Several countries recognized the high costs associated with multiple births and implemented regulations on the infertility industry. The rate of triplet and higher-order multiples has declined over the past decade. This is largely attributed to a decreased number of embryos transferred. Nonetheless, the twin rate has remained consistently high. CONCLUSION(S): Superovulation has become a routine medical therapy used for ovulation induction and IVF. With the development of this technology have come effective therapies for infertility and new ethical and medical challenges. Since the advent of gonadotropin therapy we have already developed technologies to improve monitoring and decrease hyperstimulation and high-order multiple pregnancies. In the future we anticipate new tools devised to optimize one embryo for one singleton live birth.
Asunto(s)
Fármacos para la Fertilidad Femenina/uso terapéutico , Gonadotropinas/uso terapéutico , Infertilidad/terapia , Inducción de la Ovulación , Embarazo Múltiple , Adulto , Transferencia de Embrión , Femenino , Fármacos para la Fertilidad Femenina/efectos adversos , Fármacos para la Fertilidad Femenina/historia , Fertilización In Vitro , Gonadotropinas/efectos adversos , Gonadotropinas/historia , Historia del Siglo XVI , Historia del Siglo XVIII , Historia del Siglo XIX , Historia del Siglo XX , Historia del Siglo XXI , Humanos , Infertilidad/historia , Infertilidad/fisiopatología , Progenie de Nacimiento Múltiple , Inducción de la Ovulación/efectos adversos , Inducción de la Ovulación/historia , Embarazo , Medición de Riesgo , Factores de Riesgo , Superovulación , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
Phthalates are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that target the fetal and pubertal testis and lead to alterations in endocrine and spermatogenic function. Some features of phthalate-induced testicular injury suggest that phthalates alter Sertoli-germ cell adhesion and G protein signaling. Celsr2 is a unique protein that has structural characteristics of both an adhesion molecule and a G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) and has been demonstrated to function in Sertoli-germ cell adhesion. Within 2 h of a 1-g/kg mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) exposure, in vivo Sertoli cell celsr2 localization was altered; celsr2 immunostaining became concentrated in the basal aspect of Sertoli cells, and then a diffuse pattern emerged. Because GPCRs are regulated by phosphorylation, the hypothesis that phthalate exposure induces the phosphorylation of celsr2 was tested by examining phosphorylation in celsr2-transfected HeLa cells treated with MEHP. At concentrations of 1 microM or greater, MEHP transiently increased celsr2 phosphorylation on serine/threonine residues; celsr2 phosphorylation was increased by 15 min of exposure and returned to control levels after 60 min. Cells exposed to the inactive phthalate monoester mono-methyl phthalate showed no change in celsr2 phosphorylation. In addition, phosphorylation of the endogenous HeLa cell GPCR, Chemokine Receptor 4 (CXCR4), was not altered by exposure to MEHP. Inhibition of protein kinase C or casein kinase 1 prevented MEHP-induced celsr2 phosphorylation, while inhibition of protein kinase A or mitogen-activated protein kinase had no effect. These data show that MEHP exposure rapidly alters testicular celsr2 immunolocalization as well as celsr2 posttranslational modification in a model cell line.
Asunto(s)
Cadherinas/metabolismo , Quinasa de la Caseína I/metabolismo , Dietilhexil Ftalato/análogos & derivados , Proteína Quinasa C/metabolismo , Dietilhexil Ftalato/farmacología , Técnica del Anticuerpo Fluorescente , Células HeLa , Humanos , Fosforilación , Receptores CXCR4/metabolismoRESUMEN
Spermatogenesis requires Sertoli cell-germ cell adhesion for germ cell survival and maturation. Cadherins are a diverse superfamily of adhesion proteins; structurally unique members of this superfamily (celsr cadherins) are hybrid molecules containing extracellular cadherin repeats connected to a G protein-coupled receptor transmembrane motif. Here we demonstrate postnatal testicular mRNA expression of the 3 celsr paralogs (celsr1, celsr2, and celsr3), protein localization of celsr2 and celsr3, and functional analysis of celsr2 adhesion activity in primary Sertoli cell-germ cell co-cultures. Evaluation of celsr mRNA levels during a postnatal time course indicated that celsr1 and celsr2 were Sertoli cell and/or early-stage germ cell products, whereas celsr3 was expressed in later-stage germ cells. Cell type-specific expression was verified using the Sertoli cell line 93RS2, where celsr1 and celsr2 mRNA, but not celsr3, were detected. Immunostaining of testicular cryosections resulted in celsr2 protein localization to a spokelike pattern in the basal seminiferous epithelium and punctate figures in the apical epithelium, consistent with both Sertoli cell and germ cell expression. Celsr3 localized to punctate structures in the adluminal epithelium from postnatal day 40, consistent with elongate spermatid expression. The subcellular localization of celsr2 was examined further to define its localization in Sertoli cells and germ cells. Celsr2 localized to the Golgi complex in Sertoli cells and germ cells. In addition, germ cell celsr2 localized to a rab7-positive structure, which may be an endocytic compartment. Neither celsr2 nor celsr3 immunostaining was present at classic cadherin-based adhesion junctions. Nonetheless, the addition of a recombinant celsr2 protein fragment consisting of extracellular cadherin domains 4 through 8 to Sertoli cell-germ cell co-cultures resulted in germ cell detachment from Sertoli cells. Collectively, these data indicate that celsr cadherins have a cell type-specific expression pattern, and celsr2 may mediate Sertoli cell-germ cell adhesion outside of classic cadherin-based adhesion junctions.