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We investigate experimentally the dynamic phase transition of a two-dimensional active nematic layer interfaced with a passive liquid crystal. Under a temperature ramp that leads to the transition of the passive liquid into a highly anisotropic lamellar smectic-A phase, and in the presence of a magnetic field, the coupled active nematic reorganizes its flow and orientational patterns from the turbulent into a quasilaminar regime aligned perpendicularly to the field. Remarkably, while the phase transition of the passive fluid is known to be continuous, or second order, our observations reveal intermittent dynamics of the order parameter and the coexistence of aligned and turbulent regions in the active nematic, a signature of discontinuous, or first order, phase transitions, similar to what is known to occur in relation to flocking in dry active matter. Our results suggest that alignment transitions in active systems are intrinsically discontinuous, regardless of the symmetry and momentum-damping mechanisms.

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UNLABELLED: Escherichia coli microcin C (McC) consists of a ribosomally synthesized heptapeptide attached to a modified adenosine. McC is actively taken up by sensitive Escherichia coli strains through the YejABEF transporter. Inside the cell, McC is processed by aminopeptidases, which release nonhydrolyzable aminoacyl adenylate, an inhibitor of aspartyl-tRNA synthetase. McC is synthesized by the MccB enzyme, which terminally adenylates the MccA heptapeptide precursor MRTGNAN. Earlier, McC analogs with shortened peptide lengths were prepared by total chemical synthesis and were shown to have strongly reduced biological activity due to decreased uptake. Variants with longer peptides were difficult to synthesize, however. Here, we used recombinant MccB to prepare and characterize McC-like molecules with altered peptide moieties, including extended peptide lengths. We find that N-terminal extensions of E. coli MccA heptapeptide do not affect MccB-catalyzed adenylation and that some extended-peptide-length McC analogs show improved biological activity. When the peptide length reaches 20 amino acids, both YejABEF and SbmA can perform facilitated transport of toxic peptide adenylates inside the cell. A C-terminal fusion of the carrier maltose-binding protein (MBP) with the MccA peptide is also recognized by MccB in vivo and in vitro, allowing highly specific adenylation and/or radioactive labeling of cellular proteins. IMPORTANCE: Enzymatic adenylation of chemically synthesized peptides allowed us to generate biologically active derivatives of the peptide-nucleotide antibiotic microcin C with improved bioactivity and altered entry routes into target cells, opening the way for development of various McC-based antibacterial compounds not found in nature.

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Translation inhibitor microcin C (McC) is a heptapeptide with an aspartate α-carboxyl group linked to AMP via phosphoramidate bond. Modification of the McC phosphate by an aminopropyl moiety increases the biological activity by ~10-fold. Here, we determine the pathway of the aminopropylation reaction of McC. We show that the MccD enzyme uses S-adenosyl methionine to transfer 3-amino-3-carboxypropyl group onto a phosphate of an McC maturation intermediate consisting of adenylated heptapeptide. The carboxyl group is removed by the MccE enzyme, yielding mature McC. MccD is an inefficient enzyme that requires for its action the product of Escherichia coli mtn gene, a 5'-methylthioadenosine/S-adenosylhomocysteine nucleosidase, which hydrolyses 5'-methylthioadenosine, the product of MccD-catalyzed reaction, thus stimulating the amino-3-carboxypropylation reaction. Both MccD and MccE are capable of modifying McC-like compounds with divergent peptide moieties, opening way for preparation of more potent peptidyl-adenylates.

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ABSTRACT The Trojan horse Escherichia coli antibiotic microcin C (McC) consists of a heptapeptide attached to adenosine through a phosphoramidate linkage. McC is synthesized by the MccB enzyme, which terminally adenylates the ribosomally synthesized heptapeptide precursor MccA. The peptide part is responsible for McC uptake; it is degraded inside the cell to release a toxic nonhydrolyzable aspartyl-adenylate. Bionformatic analysis reveals that diverse bacterial genomes encoding mccB homologues also contain adjacent short open reading frames that may encode MccA-like adenylation substrates. Using chemically synthesized predicted peptide substrates and recombinant cognate MccB protein homologs, adenylated products were obtained in vitro for predicted MccA peptide-MccB enzyme pairs from Helicobacter pylori, Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactococcus johnsonii, Bartonella washoensis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, and Synechococcus sp. Some adenylated products were shown to inhibit the growth of E. coli by targeting aspartyl-tRNA synthetase, the target of McC. IMPORTANCE Our results prove that McC-like adenylated peptides are widespread and are encoded by both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and by cyanobacteria, opening ways for analyses of physiological functions of these compounds and for creation of microcin C-like antibiotics targeting various bacteria.

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SVA elements represent the youngest family of hominid non-LTR retrotransposons. Recently, a human-specific subfamily (termed SVA(F1), CpG-SVA, or MAST2-SVA) was discovered representing fusion of the CpG island-containing exon 1 of the MAST2 gene and a 5'-truncated SVA. SVA(F1) includes at least 84 members, which suggests exceptionally high retrotransposition level. We investigated if the acquirement of the MAST2 CpG-island might play a role in the success of the SVA(F1) subfamily. We observed that in 16 samples representing seven human tissues, MAST2 was cotranscribed with the members of the SVA(F1) subfamily, but not with other retrotransposons. We found that the methylation status of the MAST2-derived sequences of SVA(F1) elements reversely correlates with the transcriptional activity of MAST2. The MAST2 sequence at the 5' end of SVA(F1) acts as a positive transcriptional regulator in human germ cells. Finally, in various testicular tissue samples we uncovered a transcriptional correlation of MAST2 with the human L1, Alu and SVA retrotransposons.

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Dynactin is a multiprotein complex that enhances dynein activity. The largest dynactin subunit, p150Glued, interacts with microtubules through its N-terminal region that contains a globular cytoskeleton-associated protein (CAP)-Gly domain and basic microtubule-binding domain of unknown structure. The p150Glued gene has a complicated intron-exon structure, and many splice isoforms of p150Glued protein have been predicted. Here we describe novel natural 150 kDa isoforms: the p150Glued-1A isoform, whose basic domain is composed of 41 amino acids, and p150Glued-1B with a basic domain of 21 aa because of the lack of exons 5-7 in the corresponding messenger RNA (mRNA). According to reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot data, p150Glued-1A is expressed in nerve tissues, in cultured cells and in embryonic tissues, while 1B is expressed ubiquitously. Overexpression of GFP-p150Glued-1A and -1B fusion proteins and immunostaining of cultured cells with 1A-specific antibodies show that the p150Glued-1A isoform is distributed along microtubules, whereas 1B is associated with microtubule plus-ends. The higher affinity of the p150Glued-1A isoform for microtubules is confirmed by a co-pelleting assay. In fibroblast-like cells, the interaction of p150Glued-1A with microtubules is less dependent on EB1/EB3 and CLIP170 proteins, compared with p150Glued-1B. In polarized cells, p150Glued-1A decorates microtubules that face the leading edge of the cell. The pattern of p150Glued-1A and p150Glued-1B interaction with microtubules and their tissue-specific expression patterns suggest that these isoforms might be involved in cell differentiation and proliferation.

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