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The entrepreneurship literature shows inconsistent results in outcome effectiveness, such as entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE), entrepreneurial intention (EI), and entrepreneurial behavior. This could be due to the sole focus on the motivational aspects of behavioral change. Action planning, a volitional intervention used to modify health behavior, could resolve the inconsistent results mentioned above. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the direct impacts of action planning intervention (API) following entrepreneurship education (EE) on ESE, EI, and opportunity recognition and to examine the behavioral change process from motivational and volitional perspectives. In this randomized controlled trial (RCT), we considered action planning to enhance entrepreneurial behavior after EE. The sample included 83 participants from a university in Myanmar. We randomly assigned the students to the API and control groups. We collected data on ESE and EI before and after training. We used objective measures for opportunity recognition through an opportunity evaluation framework. Serial mediation analysis revealed that the volitional impact on opportunity recognition was positively significant. From a motivational standpoint, ESE improved significantly, but we found no significant impact on EI; ESE and EI were serial mediators, with no specific mediation solely by ESE or EI. The findings contribute to the EE literature by presenting a brief and cost-effective API for EE.
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[Purpose] The purposes of this study were to assess the fundamental motor skill (FMS) of children with Down syndrome (DS) and to compare their FMS proficiencies to those of chronological age-matched and gender-matched typically developing children (TDC). [Participants and Methods] This cross-sectional study involved a total of 60 participants (30 children with DS and 30 TDC). The FMS proficiency of participants was assessed by using the test of gross motor development, second edition (TGMD-2). The data were analyzed using independent samples t-tests to verify the differences between the two groups and gender. The effect size of Cohen's d was also determined for comparing the two groups. [Results] The results showed that there were significant differences between children with DS and the TDC on locomotor and object control standard scores, and the gross motor quotient (GMQ). However, there were no significant gender-based differences in the locomotor and object control standard scores and the GMQ in both groups. [Conclusion] Based on the current results, the FMS proficiency of children with DS is lower than the TDC. Therefore, a therapeutic intervention program is necessary for children with DS to improve their FMS proficiency.
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[Purpose] The purposes of this study were to assess and explore the gender-based differences in gross motor skill development of 5-year-old Japanese children. [Subjects and Methods] This cross-sectional study recruited 60 healthy 5-year-old (third-year kindergarten, i.e., nencho) children (34 boys, 26 girls) from one local private kindergarten school in Otawara city, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. Gross motor skills, including six locomotor and six object control skills, were assessed using the test of gross motor development, second edition (TGMD-2). All subjects performed two trials of each gross motor skill, and the performances were video-recorded and scored. Assessment procedures were performed according to the standardized guidelines of the TGMD-2. [Results] The majority of subjects had an average level of overall gross motor skills. Girls had significantly better locomotor skills. Boys had significantly better object control skills. [Conclusion] The gross motor skill development of 5-year-old Japanese children involves gender-based differences in locomotor and object control skills. This study provided valuable information that can be used to establish normative references for the gross motor skills of 5-year-old Japanese children.
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[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to investigate reliability of the test of gross motor development second edition (TGMD-2) for Kindergarten children in Myanmar. [Subjects and Methods] Fifty healthy Kindergarten children (23 males, 27 females) whose parents/guardians had given written consent were participated. The subjects were explained and demonstrated all 12 gross motor skills of TGMD-2 before the assessment. Each subject individually performed two trials for each gross motor skill and the performance was video recorded. Three raters separately watched the video recordings and rated for inter-rater reliability. The second assessment was done one month later with 25 out of 50 subjects for test-rest reliability. The video recordings of 12 subjects were randomly selected from the first 50 recordings for intra-rater reliability six weeks after the first assessment. The agreement on the locomotor and object control raw scores and the gross motor quotient (GMQ) were calculated. [Results] The findings of all the reliability coefficients for the locomotor and object control raw scores and the GMQ were interpreted as good and excellent reliability. [Conclusion] The results represented that TGMD-2 is a highly reliable and appropriate assessment tool for assessing gross motor skill development of Kindergarten children in Myanmar.
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[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to examine the gross motor skill development of 5-year-old Kindergarten children in Myanmar. [Subjects and Methods] Total 472 healthy Kindergarten children (237 males, 235 females) of 2016-2017 academic year from four schools in urban area and four schools in rural area of Myanmar were recruited. The gross motor skill development of all subjects was assessed with the test of gross motor development second edition (TGMD-2). All subjects performed two trials for each gross motor skill and the performance was video recorded and scored. The assessment procedures were done according to the standardized guidelines of TGMD-2. [Results] The majority of subjects had average level of gross motor skill rank. The significant differences were found on the run and gallop of locomotor skills and the most of object control skills except the catch between males and females. The significant differences were also found between subjects from urban and rural areas. [Conclusion] Gross motor skill development of 5-year-old Kindergarten children in Myanmar had gender-based and region-based differences on both locomotor and object control skills. This study added a valuable information to the establishment of a normative reference of Kindergarten aged children for future studies.
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[Purpose] The aim of this study was to compare immediate effects between new medical stretching (NMS) and conventional medical stretching (CMS) techniques on Hamstrings flexibility. [Subjects and Methods] Thirteen healthy adult males, with finger floor distance (FFD) less than zero centimeter, without known musculoskeletal and neurological impairment in spine or lower extremities, were included. The subjects were randomly allocated to two groups. The subjects were instructed to perform NMS and CMS (hold for 30 seconds once, twice for each side of lower extremity) for both sides (total two minutes, only one session for one day). The interval between the two techniques was one week. FFD was measured with digital standing trunk flexion meter at the pre-intervention and post-intervention of both techniques. [Results] The mean values of FFD improved at the post-interventions of both techniques. The tests of within subject effects indicated that the main effect of treatment was not significant but the main effect of time was significant and the interaction of treatment and time was also significant. [Conclusion] The results of this study indicated that both medical stretching techniques were effective on Hamstrings flexibility immediately after the intervention and NMS technique was more effective on improving flexibility.
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[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to determine whether strength training programs for hip extensors and knee extensors improve gross motor function of children with cerebral palsy in Myanmar. [Subjects and Methods] Forty children (25 boys and 15 girls, mean age: 6.07 ± 2.74â years) from National Rehabilitation Hospital, Yangon, Myanmar, who had been diagnosed with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy, Gross Motor Classification System I and II participated in a 6-week strength training program (45 minutes per day, 3 days per week) on hip and knee extensors. Assessment was made, before and after intervention, of the amount of training weight in pounds, as well as Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM) dimensions D (standing) and E (walking, running, jumping). [Results] All scores had increased significantly after the strength-training program. [Conclusion] A simple method of strength-training program for hip and knee extensors might lead to improved muscle strength and gross motor function in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy.