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The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster has long been a model for studying genetics, development, neurodegeneration, and heterochromatin. Imaging and morphometry of adult Drosophila and other insects is hampered by the low throughput, narrow focal plane, and small image sensors typical of stereomicroscope cameras. When data collection is distributed among many individuals or extended time periods, these limitations are compounded by inter-operator variability in lighting, sample positioning, focus, and post-acquisition processing. To address these limitations we developed a method for multiplexed quantitative analysis of adult Drosophila melanogaster phenotypes. Efficient data collection and analysis of up to 60 adult flies in a single image with standardized conditions eliminates inter-operator variability and enables precise quantitative comparison of morphology. Semi-automated data analysis using ImageJ and R reduces image manipulations, facilitates reproducibility, and supports emerging automated segmentation methods, as well as a wide range of graphical and statistical tools. These methods also serve as a low-cost hands-on introduction to imaging, data visualization, and statistical analysis for students and trainees.

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The highly conserved autophagy-lysosome pathway is the primary mechanism for breakdown and recycling of macromolecular and organellar cargo in the eukaryotic cell. Autophagy has recently been implicated in protection against cancer, neurodegeneration, and infection, and interest is increasing in additional roles of autophagy in human health, disease, and aging. To search for novel cytoprotective features of this pathway, we carried out a genetic mosaic screen for mutations causing increased lysosomal and/or autophagic activity in the Drosophila melanogaster larval fat body. By combining Drosophila genetics with live-cell imaging of the fluorescent dye LysoTracker Red and fixed-cell imaging of autophagy-specific fluorescent protein markers, the screen was designed to identify essential metazoan genes whose disruption causes increased flux through the autophagy-lysosome pathway. The screen identified a large number of genes associated with the protein synthesis and ER-secretory pathways (e.g. aminoacyl tRNA synthetases, Oligosaccharyl transferase, Sec61alpha), and with mitochondrial function and dynamics (e.g. Rieske iron-sulfur protein, Dynamin-related protein 1). We also observed that increased lysosomal and autophagic activity were consistently associated with decreased cell size. Our work demonstrates that disruption of the synthesis, transport, folding, or glycosylation of ER-targeted proteins at any of multiple steps leads to autophagy induction. In addition to illuminating cytoprotective features of autophagy in response to cellular damage, this screen establishes a genetic methodology for investigating cell biological phenotypes in live cells, in the context of viable wild type organisms.

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In response to nutrient deficiency, eukaryotic cells activate macroautophagy, a degradative process in which proteins, organelles and cytoplasm are engulfed within unique vesicles called autophagosomes. Fusion of these vesicles with the endolysosomal compartment leads to breakdown of the sequestered material into amino acids and other simple molecules, which can be used as nutrient sources during periods of starvation. This process is driven by a group of autophagy-related (Atg) proteins, and is suppressed by TOR (target of rapamycin) signalling under favourable conditions. Several distinct kinase complexes have been implicated in autophagic signalling downstream of TOR. In yeast, TOR is known to control autophagosome formation in part through a multiprotein complex containing the serine/threonine protein kinase Atg1. Recent work in Drosophila and mammalian systems suggests that this complex and its regulation by TOR are conserved in higher eukaryotes, and that Atg1 has accrued additional functions including feedback regulation of TOR itself. TOR and Atg1 also control the activity of a second kinase complex containing Atg6/Beclin 1, Vps (vacuolar protein sorting) 15 and the class III PI3K (phosphoinositide 3-kinase) Vps34. During autophagy induction, Vps34 activity is mobilized from an early endosomal compartment to nascent autophagic membranes, in a TOR- and Atg1-responsive manner. Finally, the well-known TOR substrate S6K (p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase) has been shown to play a positive role in autophagy, which may serve to limit levels of autophagy under conditions of continuously low TOR activity. Further insight into these TOR-dependent control mechanisms may support development of autophagy-based therapies for a number of pathological conditions.

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Tuberous sclerosis complex is a dominant genetic disorder produced by mutations in either of two tumor suppressor genes, TSC1 and TSC2; it is characterized by hamartomatous tumors, and is associated with severe neurological and behavioral disturbances. Mutations in TSC1 or TSC2 deregulate a conserved growth control pathway that includes Ras homolog enriched in brain (Rheb) and Target of Rapamycin (TOR). To understand the function of this pathway in neural development, we have examined the contributions of multiple components of this pathway in both neuromuscular junction assembly and photoreceptor axon guidance in Drosophila. Expression of Rheb in the motoneuron, but not the muscle of the larval neuromuscular junction produced synaptic overgrowth and enhanced synaptic function, while reductions in Rheb function compromised synapse development. Synapse growth produced by Rheb is insensitive to rapamycin, an inhibitor of Tor complex 1, and requires wishful thinking, a bone morphogenetic protein receptor critical for functional synapse expansion. In the visual system, loss of Tsc1 in the developing retina disrupted axon guidance independently of cellular growth. Inhibiting Tor complex 1 with rapamycin or eliminating the Tor complex 1 effector, S6 kinase (S6k), did not rescue axon guidance abnormalities of Tsc1 mosaics, while reductions in Tor function suppressed those phenotypes. These findings show that Tsc-mediated control of axon guidance and synapse assembly occurs via growth-independent signaling mechanisms, and suggest that Tor complex 2, a regulator of actin organization, is critical in these aspects of neuronal development.

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The target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway regulates ribosome biogenesis, protein synthesis, nutrient import, autophagy and cell cycle progression. After 30 years of concentrated attention, how TOR controls these processes is only now beginning to be understood. Recent advances have identified a wide array of TOR inputs, including amino acids, oxygen, ATP and growth factors, as well the regulatory proteins that facilitate their effects on TOR. Such proteins include AMPK, Rheb and the tumor suppressors LKB1, p53, and Tsc1/2. It has only recently been appreciated that TOR resides in two distinct signaling complexes with differing regulatory roles, only one of which is rapamycin-sensitive, thus opening a new avenue of inquiry into TOR function. Finally, TOR appears to regulate feeding behavior by facilitating communication between organ systems, and is thus implicated in the regulation of glucose and fat homeostasis, and possibly diabetes and obesity. TOR thus functions to coordinate growth-permitting inputs with growth-promoting outputs on both a cellular and an organismal level.

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The division, differentiation, and function of stem cells and multipotent progenitors are influenced by complex signals in the microenvironment, including oxygen availability. Using a genetic "knock-in" strategy, we demonstrate that targeted replacement of the oxygen-regulated transcription factor HIF-1alpha with HIF-2alpha results in expanded expression of HIF-2alpha-specific target genes including Oct-4, a transcription factor essential for maintaining stem cell pluripotency. We show that HIF-2alpha, but not HIF-1alpha, binds to the Oct-4 promoter and induces Oct-4 expression and transcriptional activity, thereby contributing to impaired development in homozygous Hif-2alpha KI/KI embryos, defective hematopoietic stem cell differentiation in embryoid bodies, and large embryonic stem cell (ES)-derived tumors characterized by altered cellular differentiation. Furthermore, loss of HIF-2alpha severely reduces the number of embryonic primordial germ cells, which require Oct-4 expression for survival and/or maintenance. These results identify Oct-4 as a HIF-2alpha-specific target gene and indicate that HIF-2alpha can regulate stem cell function and/or differentiation through activation of Oct-4, which in turn contributes to HIF-2alpha's tumor promoting activity.

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HIF-1, a hypoxia inducible transcription factor, plays a pivotal role in the cellular response to hypoxia by activating genes involved in glucose metabolism, vascular remodeling, and erythropoiesis. We identified Mxi1, a c-Myc antagonist, as a novel target gene induced in hypoxia. Mxi1 was not induced in cells deficient in ARNT (HIF-1beta), suggesting that Mxi1 is a transcriptional target of the HIF-1 complex. Notably, c-Myc protein levels decreased during hypoxia but were stabilized by a proteasome inhibitor. Analysis of downstream transcriptional targets of c-Myc during hypoxia revealed that genes regulated by c-Myc, such as ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), were downregulated during hypoxia. In contrast, genes that are regulated by c-Myc and HIF-1, such as LDH-A, were upregulated. Mxi1 protects against c-Myc-dependent sensitization to hypoxia-induced apoptosis. The results suggest a coordinated mechanism for opposing c-Myc signaling during hypoxia that is mediated by a reduction in c-Myc levels, the induction of Mxi1, and a dominant effect of HIF-1 transcriptional activity.

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Recent reports have suggested that phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt signaling can induce angiogenesis and tumor growth by activating the hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). However, the absence of specific biochemical inhibitors of HIF-1 signaling has prevented a direct test of the requirement for HIF-1 activity in Akt-dependent tumorigenesis. To genetically test the relationship between HIF-1 and Akt, activated Akt was expressed in a hepatoma cell line lacking HIF-1. Akt expression was associated with a dramatic increase in tumor size, despite the absence of HIF-1. Tumor size was not further increased in cells with reconstituted HIF-1 activity, indicating that the effects of Akt on tumorigenesis were not limited by the absence of HIF-1. Increased tumor size in Akt-expressing, HIF-deficient cells was associated with vascular endothelial growth factor secretion and tumor vascularization. In addition to vascular endothelial growth factor production, Akt also conferred a cell-autonomous competitive advantage to tumor cells in an in vivo competition experiment. Thus, Akt has potent, HIF-1-independent oncogenic and angiogenic activities.

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Hypoxia triggers a reversible inhibition of protein synthesis thought to be important for energy conservation in O2-deficient environments. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway integrates multiple environmental cues to regulate translation in response to nutrient availability and stress, suggesting it as a candidate for O2 regulation. We show here that hypoxia rapidly and reversibly triggers hypophosphorylation of mTOR and its effectors 4E-BP1, p70S6K, rpS6, and eukaryotic initiation factor 4G. Hypoxic regulation of these translational control proteins is dominant to activation via multiple distinct signaling pathways such as insulin, amino acids, phorbol esters, and serum and is independent of Akt/protein kinase B and AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation, ATP levels, ATP:ADP ratios, and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). Finally, hypoxia appears to repress phosphorylation of translational control proteins in a manner analogous to rapamycin and independent of phosphatase 2A (PP2A) activity. These data demonstrate a new mode of regulation of the mTOR pathway and position this pathway as a powerful point of control by O2 of cellular metabolism and energetics.

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Inactivation of the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) gene is associated with the development of highly vascularized tumors. pVHL targets the alpha subunits of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) for ubiquitin-mediated degradation in an oxygen-dependent manner. Although pVHL-deficient tumor cell lines demonstrate constitutive stabilization and activation of HIF, it has yet to be shown that loss of murine Vhl alone is sufficient to dysregulate HIF. We utilized a genetic approach to demonstrate that loss of Vhl is sufficient not only to stabilize HIF-alpha subunits under normoxia, but also fully activate HIF-mediated responses. These studies have implications for the hierarchy of signaling events leading to HIF stabilization, nuclear translocation, and target gene expression. We further demonstrate that loss of murine Vhl does not promote teratocarcinoma growth, indicating that other genetic changes must occur to facilitate Vhl-mediated tumorigenesis.

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The serine/threonine kinase Akt/PKB and the oxygen-responsive transcription factor HIF-1 share the ability to induce such processes as angiogenesis, glucose uptake, and glycolysis. Akt activity and HIF-1 are both essential for development and implicated in tumor growth. Upon activation by products of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt phosphorylates downstream targets that stimulate growth and inhibit apoptosis. Previous reports suggest that Akt may achieve its effects on angiogenesis and glucose metabolism by stimulating HIF-1 activity. We report here that, whereas serum stimulation can induce a slight accumulation of HIF-1 alpha protein in a PI3K/Akt pathway-dependent fashion, hypoxia induces much higher levels of HIF-1 alpha protein and HIF-1 DNA binding activity independently of PI3K and mTOR activity. In addition, we find the effects of constitutively active Akt on HIF-1 activity are cell-type specific. High levels of Akt signaling can modestly increase HIF-1 alpha protein, but this increase does not affect HIF-1 target gene expression. Therefore, the PI3K/Akt pathway is not necessary for hypoxic induction of HIF-1 subunits or activity, and constitutively active Akt is not itself sufficient to induce HIF-1 activity.

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