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Resumen: Objetivo: Identificar el mejor tratamiento costo-efectividad para la diabetes tipo 2 en pacientes ambulatorios, de los tres principales esquemas de tratamiento en una unidad de atención de primer nivel en el estado de Morelos, México. Material y Métodos: En una muestra de 1,795 pacientes atendidos en una unidad de primer nivel, se realizó el cálculo del coeficiente de costo- efectividad para tres esquemas de tratamiento, seleccionados como parte del tratamiento escalonado sugerido en las guías principales y por su disponibilidad en el primer nivel de atención. Los costos de cada intervención se calcularon utilizando el método de estimación de instrumentación y la técnica de manejo de caso promedio. Se realizó una búsqueda en bases de datos PubMed, Scopus, Scielo y Latindex con base en palabras clave, y se hizo una revisión de la literatura donde se evaluó la eficacia de los esquemas de tratamiento de interés y la efectividad se determinó a partir de la reacción de los fármacos de cada intervención, en comparación con los efectos de la dieta y otros hipoglucemiantes. Para identificar la regla de decisión, se determinó el coeficiente de costo-efectividad de cada intervención. Resultados: La mejor intervención costo-efectividad se basó en un tratamiento oral combinado de metformina con glibenclamida, obteniendo un costo total de $ 951.75 USD, con una tasa de efectividad del 42.30% y un coeficiente de efectividad de 2.25. Conclusiones: Para el primer nivel de atención, se recomienda promover más el uso del tratamiento oral combinado de metformina con glibenclamida.

Abstract: Objective: To identify the most cost-effective treatment in three main schemes for type 2 diabetes mellitus outpatients in a first level care unit in the Morelos State. Materials and Method: In a sample of 1795 patients treated in a first-level unit, the cost-effectiveness coefficient calculation was performed for three treatment schemes, selected as part of the stepped treatment suggested in the main guides and for their availability at the first level of care. Costs of each intervention were calculated using the instrumentation estimation method and the average case management technique. A search was carried out in PubMed, Scopus, Scielo and Latindex databases based on keywords, and a review of the literature was made where the efficacy of the treatment schemes of interest was evaluated and the effectiveness was determined from the effect of the drugs of each intervention, compared to the effects of diet and other hypoglycemics. To identify the decision rule, the cost- effectiveness coefficient of each intervention was determined. Results: The most cost-effective intervention was based on a combined oral treatment of metformin with glibenclamide, obtaining a total cost of $951.75 USD, with an effectiveness rate of 42.30% and an effectiveness coefficient of 2.25. Conclusions: For the first level of care, it is recommended to promote more the use of combined oral treatment of metformin with glibenclamide.

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We investigated if supplementing obese mothers (MO) with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) improves milk long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LCPUFA) composition and offspring anxiety behavior. From weaning throughout pregnancy and lactation, female Wistar rats ate chow (C) or a high-fat diet (MO). One month before mating and through lactation, half the mothers received 400 mg DHA kg-1 d-1 orally (C+DHA or MO+DHA). Offspring ate C after weaning. Maternal weight, total body fat, milk hormones, and milk nutrient composition were determined. Pups' milk nutrient intake was evaluated, and behavioral anxiety tests were conducted. MO exhibited increased weight and total fat, and higher milk corticosterone, leptin, linoleic, and arachidonic acid (AA) concentrations, and less DHA content. MO male and female offspring had higher ω-6/ ω-3 milk consumption ratios. In the elevated plus maze, female but not male MO offspring exhibited more anxiety. MO+DHA mothers exhibited lower weight, total fat, milk leptin, and AA concentrations, and enhanced milk DHA. MO+DHA offspring had a lower ω-6/ω-3 milk intake ratio and reduced anxiety vs. MO. DHA content was greater in C+DHA milk vs. C. Supplementing MO mothers with DHA improves milk composition, especially LCPUFA content and ω-6/ω-3 ratio reducing offspring anxiety in a sex-dependent manner.

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Abstract Objectives: to evaluate feeding practices in the first year of life and their association with the development of overweight and obesity in children in Mexico. Methods: the association between overweight and obesity with different feeding practices were evaluated. The data was processed using the statistical package Stata version 14 using logistic regression models. Results: 396 children were evaluated; the prevalence of overweight and obesity was 6% and 7.7% presented a possible risk of overweight. 6.9% had exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life and 71.7% were fed infant formula. The variables significantly associated with the development of overweight and obesity in the first year of life were the age of the child (p =0.043, RR=0.57), the introduction of fluids in the first three days of life (p=0.02, RR=2.90), consumption of foods with a high sugar content (p =0.01, RR=0.25), consumption of milk other than breast (p =0.02, RR3.25) and egg consumption (p =0.05; RR=0.28). Conclusions: our results show that it is essential to attend complementary feeding practices and reinforce exclusive breastfeeding in the first year of life, as measures to prevent overweight and obesity to improve health in childhood.

Resumen Objetivos: evaluar las prácticas de lactancia y alimentación en el primer año de vida y su asociación con desarrollo del sobrepeso y obesidad de niños en México. Métodos: estudio transversal, analítico, y explicativo, se evaluó la asociación entre sobrepeso y obesidad con las distintas prácticas de alimentación en menores de un año de edad. Resultados: se evaluaron 396 menores, la prevalencia de sobrepeso y obesidad fue de 6% y 7.7% presentaba posible riesgo de sobrepeso. El 6.9% tuvo lactancia materna exclusiva en los primeros 6 meses de vida; 71.7% fueron alimentados con fórmula infantil. Las variables asociadas significativamente con el desarrollo de sobrepeso y obesidad en el primer año de vida fueron: la edad del menor (p =0.043; RR=0.57), introducción de líquidos en los tres primeros días de vida (p=0.02; RR=2.90), consumo de alimentos con alto contenido de azúcar (p = 0.01; RR=0.25), consumo de leches distintas al pecho (p = 0.02; RR=3.25) y consumo de huevo (p =0.05; RR=0.28). Conclusiones: nuestros resultados muestran que es fundamental atender las prácticas de alimentación complementaria y reforzar la lactancia materna exclusiva en el primer año de vida, como medidas de prevención del sobrepeso y obesidad para mejorar la salud en la infancia.

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BACKGROUND: Schizophrenia (SCH) and bipolar disorder (BD) have both shared and unique genetic risk factors and clinical characteristics. The aim of the present study was to identify potential risk factors significantly associated with SCH, relative to a BD reference group. METHODS: Data were obtained from medical records of patients that entered a major Mexico City hospital during 2009-2010 presenting psychotic symptoms (n = 1132; 830 cases of SCH, 302 cases of BD; 714 men and 418 women). SCH and BD diagnoses were compared with respect to a number of family and clinical characteristics. Logistic and linear regression analyses were used to respectively identify factors selectively associated with the SCH diagnosis relative to the BD diagnosis and explore the relationship between PANSS scores and parental age at time of birth to the age of SCH onset. RESULTS: Patients with SCH showed greater functional impairment than those with BD. Family history of mental illness, premorbid schizoid-like personality, and obstetric trauma were significantly associated with the SCH diagnosis. The association of obstetric trauma with SCH was greatest in male patients with a family history of mental illness. In women, increased paternal and decreased maternal age at time of the patient's birth were associated with an earlier age of SCH onset. CONCLUSION: Male gender, showing premorbid schizoid-like personality, familial SCH, and obstetric trauma are risk factors that distinguish SCH from BD. Additionally, our results suggest that risk for SCH relative to BD may be importantly influenced by interactions between familial risk, gender, and obstetric trauma.

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Resumen: Objetivo: Analizar la gobernanza en el sistema de salud en México, en las políticas frente a la pandemia por Covid-19. Material y métodos: Estudio cualitativo, analítico, realizado entre junio y noviembre de 2020. Se analizaron 41 entrevistas semiestructuradas que se aplicaron a actores clave del sistema de salud y que se organizaron en el software ATLAS.ti 9. El análisis se adhirió a los principios teórico-metodológicos del Marco Analítico de Gobernanza. Resultados: El problema: la formulación de políticas fue centralizada; los actores: sólo los altos mandos participan en las decisiones; las normas: los valores sociales y el liderazgo determinan su nivel de responsabilidad; toma de decisiones: los altos mandos reconocieron poder para proponer modificaciones al Marco Normativo; los nodos: las políticas federales fueron adaptadas a nivel estatal de manera diferenciada. Conclusiones: La gobernanza centralizada, los niveles diferenciados de convocatoria de los actores, su poder de decisión, acuerdos, responsabilidad y liderazgo, definieron el alcance de la gobernanza y, a su vez, el nivel de respuesta ante la pandemia por Covid-19.

Abstract: Objective: Analyze governance in the Mexican health system, with regards to policies to combat the Covid-19 pandemic. Materials and methods: Qualitative, analytic study carried out from June to November, 2020. Forty-one semi-structured interviews with key actors in the health system were analyzed and organized in ATLAS.ti-v.9 software. The analysis followed theoretical-methodological principles of the Governance Analytical Framework. Results: The problem: the policy-making was centralized; the actors: only high level actors participated in the decisions; decision-making: high level actors recognized power to propose modifications in the regulatory framework; nodes: federal policies were adapted at the state level in a differential manner. Conclusions: Centralized governance, differential levels of convocation of actors, decision-making power, level of agreements, as well as responsibility and leadership, all defined the reach of governance and, in turn, the level of response to the Covid-19 pandemic.

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Resumen Objetivo: Identificar la mejor intervención costo-efectividad para el tratamiento de obesidad grado I y II, en el primer nivel de atención para población sin seguridad social, que requiera los servicios del Instituto de Salud y Bienestar (INSABI) Material y Métodos: Se realizó un análisis de costo-efectividad desde la perspectiva del proveedor. Se diseñaron y calcularon los costos de tres tratamientos para la obesidad I y II en usuarios del primer nivel de atención a la salud que carecen de seguridad social, en el municipio de Coatetelco, Morelos. Cada tratamiento fue estimado para el periodo de un año. Los indicadores de efectividad fueron obtenidos a través de estudios previos con características similares a las intervenciones diseñadas. Resultados: La intervención que presento un mayor costo, fue el tratamiento farmacológico con $88,899.26 USD, seguida del tratamiento nutricional con un costo de $31,647.57 USD y $57,189.49 USD en el tratamiento integral. El coeficiente de efectividad obtenido fue de 0.1906 para el tratamiento nutricional, seguido del tratamiento farmacológico con 0.2168 y 0.2531 en el tratamiento integral. Conclusiones: El tratamiento nutricional es la mejor intervención costo- efectividad en pacientes con obesidad grado I y II que carecen de seguridad social y que reciben seguimiento en el primer nivel de atención a la salud. La inversión en estos tratamientos puede contribuir a disminuir los factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de enfermedades crónicas en México.

Abstract Objective: To identify the most cost-effective intervention for the treatment of grade I and II obesity in the first level of care for a population without social security that requires the services of the Institute of Health and Wellbeing (INSABI). Material and Methods: A cost-effectiveness analysis was carried out from the provider's perspective. The costs of three treatments for obesity I and II in users of the first level of health care who lack social security were designed and calculated in the municipality of Coatetelco, Morelos. Each treatment was estimated for a period of one year. The effectiveness indicators were obtained through previous studies with characteristics similar to the designed interventions. Results: The intervention that presented the highest cost was drug treatment with $ 88,899.26 USD, followed by nutritional treatment with a cost of $ 31,647.57 USD and $ 57,189.49 USD in comprehensive treatment. The coefficient of effectiveness obtained was 0.1906 for nutritional treatment, followed by pharmacological treatment with 0.2168 and 0.2531 in comprehensive treatment. Conclusions: Nutritional treatment is the most cost-effective intervention in patients with grade I and II obesity who lack social security is nutritional treatment and who receive care at the first level of health care. Investing in these treatments can help reduce risk factors for the development of chronic diseases in Mexico.

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Taking the Mexican case as a tracer of what is happening in Latin America on public health, we estimate the recent changes and challenges for the management of hypertension in older adults in the context of universal health coverage. The population base was 200, and 308 reported cases of older adults with hypertension. The cost-evaluation method used was based on the instrumentation and consensus technique. Regarding epidemiological changes for 2016 versus 2018, there is an increase of 21% (CI: 95%, p < 0.001). Comparing the economic impact in 2016 versus 2018 (CI: 95%, p < 0.001), the increase is 33%. The total amount estimated for hypertension in 2018 (in US dollars) was $ 1,896,520,273. It includes $ 898,064,979 as direct costs and $ 998,455,294 as indirect costs. The recent trends show that the financial requirements for the coming years do not guarantee the effectiveness of the coverage rates required for the elderly. In terms of catastrophic expenditure, the challenge is not minor, the greatest economic burden is for the pocket of patients and their families.

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Objetivo. Analizar la gobernanza en el sistema de salud en México, en las políticas frente a la pandemia por Covid-19. Material y métodos. Estudio cualitativo, analítico, realizado entre junio y noviembre de 2020. Se analizaron 41 entrevistas semiestructuradas que se aplicaron a acto-res clave del sistema de salud y que se organizaron en el software ATLAS.ti 9. El análisis se adhirió a los principios teórico-metodológicos del Marco Analítico de Gobernanza. Resultados. El problema: la formulación de políticas fue centralizada; los actores: sólo los altos mandos participan en las decisiones; las normas: los valores sociales y el liderazgo determinan su nivel de responsabilidad; toma de decisio-nes: los altos mandos reconocieron poder para proponer modificaciones al Marco Normativo; los nodos: las políticas federales fueron adaptadas a nivel estatal de manera diferen-ciada. Conclusiones. La gobernanza centralizada, los niveles diferenciados de convocatoria de los actores, su poder de decisión, acuerdos, responsabilidad y liderazgo, definieron el alcance de la gobernanza y, a su vez, el nivel de respuesta ante la pandemia por Covid-19.

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BACKGROUND: To identify trends in the epidemiological and economic burden of diabetes in the elderly. METHODS: Using the Box-Jenkins method to estimate expected cases for the period 2020-2022, costs were determined with the instrumentation technique. The population base was 4 032 189 older adults diagnosed with diabetes in 2019. RESULTS: Regarding the epidemiological burden, there is an increase of 11-15% (p<0.001). Comparing the economic burden for 2020 vs 2022, the increase is estimated as 29% (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: In the framework of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, the increase in diabetes cases and costs in older adults substantially complicates the scope of universal coverage for patients with diabetes.

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OBJECTIVE: The study hopes to contribute to the analysis of political, technical and social dimensions and sub-dimensions that affect the processes of adjustments to the health system model based on the renewed PHC (Primary Health Care) strategy, at the regional (meso) and local levels. (micro), levels where problems and obstacles are externalized and institutional capacity gaps are verified, in contexts of changes in political leadership, which put their sustainability at risk. The observation included three government periods (2008-2012, 2012- 2013 and 2013-2018), in two departments of Paraguay (Misiones -rural- and Central -urban-). METHODS: Qualitative research on the implementation of public health policy in Paraguay, aimed at promoting improvements in health services in specific contexts, through case studies, complemented with a documentary review. It explores macro, meso, and micro health processes, disaggregated in their political, social, and technical dimensions, to trace the PHC management profile over time. Directors, managers, and professionals in the field of health with experience, commitment, adherence, and prior knowledge were interviewed, using a priori analysis categories. The data and selection of discursive fragments were processed with the Atlas Ti software and auxiliary matrices in Excel. RESULTS: Social changes and health outcomes are perceived in the study regions, despite financial restrictions and no flexibility of public spending on health attributed to the leadership and individual performance of health workers, which establish differences in terms of empowerment, cohesion and commitment in the development of the strategies outlined by the technical teams and decision-makers responsible for the implementation of policy lines in primary health care. CONCLUSIONS: There are technological limitations, asymmetries of the information subsystems that translate into management weaknesses, as well as little community participation in the design and evaluation of health plans. Coordination weaknesses and improvement plans were detected in operating units of the regional networks, as well as. different training modalities. The availability of specialists in family medicine is low.

OBJETIVO: El estudio espera contribuir al análisis de dimensiones y subdimensiones políticas, técnicas y sociales que repercuten en los procesos de ajustes al modelo de sistema de salud basado en la estrategia renovada de APS (Atención Primaria de Salud), a nivel regional (meso) y local (micro), niveles donde se exteriorizan los problemas, obstáculos y se constatan las brechas de capacidad institucional, en contextos de cambios de conducción política, que ponen en riesgo su sostenibilidad, La observación incluyo tres periodos de gobierno (2008-2012, 2012-2013 y 2013-2018), en dos departamentos de Paraguay (Misiones -rural- y Central -urbano-). METODOS: Se realizó una investigación cualitativa sobre la implementación de políticas públicas de salud, basada en estudios de caso en contextos específicos, complementada con revisión documental. Se exploraron procesos sanitarios macro, meso y micro, desagregados en dimensiones políticas, sociales y técnicas, para poder trazar el perfil de gestión de la APS en el nivel subnacional en tres periodos de gestión de gobierno. Se entrevistó a directores, gerentes y profesionales sanitarios, con experiencia, compromiso, adherencia y conocimiento previo, utilizando categorías de análisis seleccionadas a priori. Los datos y selección de fragmentos discursivos fueron procesados con el software Atlas Ti y hojas de cálculo en Excel. RESULTADOS: A pesar de las restricciones financieras y la nula flexibilidad del gasto público, se declararon resultados positivos en salud en las regiones en estudio, atribuidas al liderazgo, el empoderamiento, el desempeño individual, la cohesión de los equipos de salud y el compromiso en el desarrollo de las estrategias delineadas, todo ello en el marco de implementación de las políticas de APS. Se constataron asimetrías y limitaciones tecnológicas de los subsistemas de información, traducidas en debilidades de gestión. Se consideró incipiente la participación comunitaria en el diseño y evaluación de planes de salud. Persistían debilidades de coordinación para la continuidad de los cuidados. Se desarrollaron diferentes modelos de capacitación en los diferentes niveles. Fue insuficiente la dotación de médicos de familia. CONCLUSIONES: Los vínculos entre los objetivos de implementación de las líneas de políticas de Atención Primaria de salud, los procesos decisorios y la sostenibilidad administrativa han permanecido frágiles durante los sucesivos cambios de gobierno.

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[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1186/s13690-020-00422-1.].

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BACKGROUND: To analyze the influence of socioeconomic determinants on the development of overweight and obesity in the mother-child binomial. METHODS: This is a study based on a prospective cohort of the mother-child binomial. Using STATA software, the association between the mothers' body mass index and the nutritional status of minors was analyzed using a logistic regression model with socioeconomic and demographic variables. RESULTS: The combined prevalence of overweight and obesity in cohort mothers was 53.2%. A statistically significant association was found between the overweight mothers and minors with possible risk of overweight (p 0.001) and with overweight (p 0.001). The logistic regression model was adjusted by age and marital status and linked maternal overweight and obesity with the following variables: severe food insecurity (RR 1.17, CI 0.04-0.31), having a health problem (RR 1.5, CI 0.86-2.05), income (RR 1.79, CI .49-1.30), smoking (RR 1.1, CI 0.80-1.37) and dietary pattern (RR 1.5, CI 0.38-0.87). CONCLUSIONS: The study highlights the importance of paying attention to risk factors starting at the gestational stage, since at this time the mother's nutritional status has an influence on the offspring's growth and development. Evidences exist of an association between intergenerational transmission of obesity and socioeconomic aspects of the mother. These evidences must be considered in the revision and adjustments to health system interventions for the prevention of obesity in the mother-child binomial.