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We report an in-depth study of the reductive activation of O2 by the nonheme [FeII(L25)(MeCN)]2+ complex carried out by cyclic voltammetry. Experimental evidence is obtained for the slow coordination of dioxygen to the ferrous center yielding an FeII/O2 adduct with a strong FeII-O2 character rather than an FeIII-superoxo one. Electron injection in the FeII-O2 species occurs at a potential of ca. -700 mV vs. SCE, i.e. 200 mV above the O2 to O2˙- reduction, leading to the formation of a FeIII-peroxo intermediate and then FeIII-hydroperoxo upon protonation by residual water. The experimental CVs recorded at variable scan rate or variable FeII concentration are well simulated taking into account a detailed mechanism initiated by the competitive reduction of O2 and the FeII-O2 adduct. Analysis of the concentration of the reaction intermediates generated as a function of the applied potential indicates that the FeIII-peroxo intermediate significantly accumulates at a potential of -650 mV. Oxidative bromination of anisole is assayed under electrolytic conditions at this potential to yield bromoanisole products. The low faradaic yields observed reveal that deleterious reactions such as direct reduction of reaction intermediates likely occur. Based on the detailed mechanism elucidated, a number of improvements to achieve more efficient catalytic reactions can be proposed.

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Iron porphyrins are molecular catalysts recognized for their ability to electrochemically and photochemically reduce carbon dioxide (CO2). The main reduction product is carbon monoxide (CO). CO holds significant industrial importance as it serves as a precursor for various valuable chemical products containing either a single carbon atom (C1), like methanol or methane, or multiple carbon atoms (Cn), such as ethanol or ethylene. Despite the long-established efficiency of these catalysts, optimizing their catalytic activity and stability and comprehending the intricate reaction mechanisms remain a significant challenge. This article presents a comprehensive investigation of the mechanistic aspects of the selective electroreduction of CO2 to CO using an iron porphyrin substituted with four trimethylammonium groups in the para position [(pTMA)FeIII-Cl]4+. By employing infrared and UV-Visible spectroelectrochemistry, changes in the electronic structure and coordination environment of the iron center can be observed in real-time as the electrochemical potential is adjusted, offering new insights into the reaction mechanisms. Catalytic species were identified, and evidence of a secondary reaction pathway was uncovered, potentially prompting a re-evaluation of the nature of the catalytically active species.

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The one-electron reduction of the nonheme iron(III)-hydroperoxo complex, [FeIII (OOH)(L5 2 )]2+ (L5 2 =N-methyl-N,N',N'-tris(2-pyridylmethyl)ethane-1,2-diamine), carried out at -70 °C results in the release of dioxygen and in the formation of [FeII (OH)(L5 2 )]+ following a bimolecular process. This reaction can be performed either with cobaltocene as chemical reductant, or electrochemically. These experimental observations are consistent with the disproportionation of the hydroperoxo group in the putative FeII (OOH) intermediate generated upon reduction of the FeIII (OOH) starting complex. One plausible mechanistic scenario is that this disproportionation reaction follows an O-O heterolytic cleavage pathway via a FeIV -oxo species.

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Terthiazoles with redox-active substituents like an N-methyl pyridinium group and ferrocene have been synthesized and their photo- and electro-chromic behaviors were investigated. The presence of two lateral N-methyl pyridinium substituents in the structure of terthiazole proved to be effective in inducing not only the reductive ring-closure of the terthiazole core but also its oxidative ring-opening reaction, leading to the first terarylene-based switch able to fully operate both photochemically and electrochemically. Moreover, the large increase in the redox potential between its open and closed form (700 mV) means that a part of the photon energy necessary to trigger the cyclization is stored in the form of chemical potential available for other works. Introduction of a second redox-active unit such as ferrocene onto the central thiazolyl moiety is found to inhibit the photochromism of the switch but not its redox switchability, which, instead, got improved for the ring-opening reaction via the redox properties of the ferrocenyl unit. The optical and redox properties of the switch in its different oxidation states are analyzed with the aid of DFT calculations in order to rationalize different switching processes.

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Oxidation of organic substrates is achieved in nature under mild conditions thanks to metalloenzymes but remains a challenge for chemists. Herein we show by UV-Vis spectroelectrochemistry that when MnIIITPPCl is electrochemically reduced to MnII in CH2Cl2 under O2, a MnIIO2˙ species is generated. Benzoic anhydride reacts with the latter triggering a catalytic current in cyclic voltammetry. Electrolysis on the catalytic wave in the presence of cyclooctene leads to its oxygenation or halogenation depending on the axial ligand present as reported here for the first time.

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O2 activation under mild conditions remains a weighty challenge for chemists. Herein we report a study of electrochemical O2 reductive activation catalyzed by FeIII(F20TPP)Cl, by means of cyclic voltammetry and UV-vis spectroelectrochemistry in acidic solutions of N,N-dimethylformamide. Two parallel catalytic pathways have been evidenced occurring at different overpotentials. At high overpotential a classical electron-proton (EPT) pathway where protonation of Fe peroxo ultimately leads to the formation of high-valent Fe oxo species dominates. At low overpotential a proton-electron (PET) pathway involving a hydrosuperoxo species has been identified.

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Herein we report the first example of using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) to quantitatively analyze O2 reductive activation in organic media catalyzed by three different Fe porphyrins. For each porphyrin, SECM can provide in one single experiment the redox potential of various intermediates, the association constant of FeII with O2 , and the pKa of the FeIII (OOH- )/ FeIII (OO2- ) couple. The results obtained can contribute to a further understanding of the parameters controlling the catalytic efficiency of the Fe porphyrin towards O2 activation and reduction.

RESUMEN

Six Mn-Schiff base complexes, [Mn(X-salpn)]0/+ (salpn = 1,3-bis(sal-ic-ylidenamino)propane, X = H [1], 5-Cl [2], 2,5-F2 [3], 3,5-Cl2 [4], 5-NO2 [5], 3,5-(NO2)2 [6]), were synthesized and characterized in solution, and second-sphere effects on their electrochemical and spectroscopic properties were analyzed. The six complexes catalyze the dismutation of superoxide with catalytic rate constants in the range 0.65 to 1.54 × 106 M-1 s-1 obtained through the nitro blue tetrazolium photoreduction inhibition superoxide dismutases assay, in aqueous medium of pH 7.8. In solution, these compounds possess two labile solvent molecules in the axial positions favoring coordination of the highly nucleophilic O2 •- to the metal center. Even complex 5, [Mn(5-(NO2)salpn) (OAc) (H2O)], with an axial acetate in the solid state, behaves as a 1:1 electrolyte in methanolic solution. Electron paramagnetic resonance and UV-vis monitoring of the reaction of [Mn(X-salpn)]0/+ with KO2 demonstrates that in diluted solutions these complexes behave as catalysts supporting several additions of excess O2 •-, but at high complex concentrations (≥0.75 mM) catalyst self-inhibition occurs by the formation of a catalytically inactive dimer. The correlation of spectroscopic, electrochemical, and kinetics data suggest that second-sphere effects control the oxidation states of Mn involved in the O2 •- dismutation cycle catalyzed by complexes 1-6 and modulate the strength of the Mn-substrate adduct for electron-transfer through an inner-sphere mechanism.

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Substituted tetraphenyl Fe porphyrins are versatile molecular catalysts for the activation of small molecules (such as O2, H+ or CO2), which could lead to renewable energy storage, the direct production of fuels or new catalytic relevant processes. Herein, we review the recent studies of these earth-abundant metal catalysts for the electrochemical activation of dioxygen on the one hand and for the photostimulated reduction of carbon dioxide on the other hand. These two prototype reactions illustrate how mechanistic studies are the only rational approach to gain fundamental insights into the elementary steps that drive the catalysis and for identification of the key intrinsic parameters controlling the reactivity, offering in turn the possibility to rationally tune the structure of the catalysts as well as the catalytic conditions.

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A new diMnIII complex, [Mn2L(OAc)2(H2O)](BPh4)·3H2O (1), obtained with the unsymmetrical N3O3-ligand H3L = 1-[N-(2-pyridylmethyl),N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)amino]-3-[N'-(2-hydroxybenzyl),N'-(benzyl)amino]propan-2-ol, has been prepared and characterized. The unsymmetrical hexadentate ligand L3- leads to coordination dissymmetry (dissimilar donor atoms) around each Mn ion (N2O4 and NO4(solvent), respectively) leaving one labile site on one of the two Mn ions that facilitates interaction of the metal center with H2O2, as in Mn catalase. 1 is able to catalyze H2O2 disproportionation in acetonitrile, with second-order rate constant kcat = 23.9(2) M-1 s-1. The accessibility of the MnII2 state and the closeness of the two one-electron reduction processes suggest 1 employs MnIII2/MnII2 oxidation states for catalysis.

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Reductive activation of O2 is achieved by using the [FeIII(F20TPP)Cl] (F20TPP = 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl) porphyrinate) porphyrin through electrochemical reduction of the [FeIII(F20TPP)(O2•-)] superoxo complex. Formation of the [FeIII(F20TPP)(OO)]- peroxo species is monitored by using low-temperature electronic absorption spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance, and cyclic voltammetry. Its subsequent protonation to yield the [FeIII(F20TPP)(OOH)] hydroperoxo intermediate is probed using low-temperature electronic absorption spectroscopy and electron paramagnetic resonance.

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The design of highly efficient and selective photocatalytic systems for CO2 reduction that are based on nonexpensive materials is a great challenge for chemists. The photocatalytic reduction of CO2 by [Co(qpy)(OH2)2](2+) (1) (qpy = 2,2':6',2″:6″,2‴-quaterpyridine) and [Fe(qpy)(OH2)2](2+) (2) have been investigated. With Ru(bpy)3(2+) as the photosensitizer and 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[d]imidazole as the sacrificial reductant in CH3CN/triethanolamine solution under visible-light excitation (blue light-emitting diode), a turnover number (TON) for CO as high as 2660 with 98% selectivity can be achieved for the cobalt catalyst. In the case of the iron catalyst, the TON was >3000 with up to 95% selectivity. More significantly, when Ru(bpy)3(2+) was replaced by the organic dye sensitizer purpurin, TONs of 790 and 1365 were achieved in N,N-dimethylformamide for the cobalt and iron catalysts, respectively.

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Molecular catalysis of carbon dioxide reduction using earth-abundant metal complexes as catalysts is a key challenge related to the production of useful products--the "solar fuels"--in which solar energy would be stored. A direct approach using sunlight energy as well as an indirect approach where sunlight is first converted into electricity could be used. A Co(II) complex and a Fe(III) complex, both bearing the same pentadentate N5 ligand (2,13-dimethyl-3,6,9,12,18-pentaazabicyclo[12.3.1]octadeca-1(18),2,12,14,16-pentaene), were synthesized, and their catalytic activity toward CO2 reduction was investigated. Carbon monoxide was formed with the cobalt complex, while formic acid was obtained with the iron-based catalyst, thus showing that the catalysis product can be switched by changing the metal center. Selective CO2 reduction occurs under electrochemical conditions as well as photochemical conditions when using a photosensitizer under visible light excitation (λ > 460 nm, solvent acetonitrile) with the Co catalyst. In the case of the Fe catalyst, selective HCOOH production occurs at low overpotential. Sustained catalytic activity over long periods of time and high turnover numbers were observed in both cases. A catalytic mechanism is suggested on the basis of experimental results and preliminary quantum chemistry calculations.

RESUMEN

A mononuclear Mn(III) complex MnL·4H2O (H3L=1-[N-(2-pyridylmethyl),N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)amino]-3-[N'-(2-hydroxybenzyl),N'-(4-methylbenzyl)amino]propan-2-ol) has been prepared and characterized. This complex catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide efficiently, with catalytic rate constant kcat=1.7×10(6)M(-1)s(-1) and IC50 1.26µM, obtained through the nitro blue tetrazolium photoreduction inhibition superoxide dismutase assay, in aqueous solution of pH7.8. MnL is also able to disproportionate more than 300 equivalents of H2O2 in CH3CN, with initial rate of H2O2 decomposition given by ri=kcat [MnL](2) [H2O2] and kcat=1.32(2)mM(-2)min(-1). The accessibility of the Mn(IV) state (E(p)=0.53V vs. saturated calomel electrode), suggests MnL employs a high-valent catalytic cycle to decompose O2(-) and H2O2.

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Recent efforts to model the reactivity of iron oxygenases have led to the generation of nonheme FeIII(OOH) and FeIV(O) intermediates from FeII complexes and O2 but using different cofactors. This diversity emphasizes the rich chemistry of nonheme Fe(ii) complexes with dioxygen. We report an original mechanistic study of the reaction of [(TPEN)FeII]2+ with O2 carried out by cyclic voltammetry. From this FeII precursor, reaction intermediates such as [(TPEN)FeIV(O)]2+, [(TPEN)FeIII(OOH)]2+ and [(TPEN)FeIII(OO)]+ have been chemically generated in high yield, and characterized electrochemically. These electrochemical data have been used to analyse and perform simulation of the cyclic voltammograms of [(TPEN)FeII]2+ in the presence of O2. Thus, several important mechanistic informations on this reaction have been obtained. An unfavourable chemical equilibrium between O2 and the FeII complex occurs that leads to the FeIII-peroxo complex upon reduction, similarly to heme enzymes such as P450. However, unlike in heme systems, further reduction of this latter intermediate does not result in O-O bond cleavage.

RESUMEN

Two new tri-Mn(III) complexes of general formula [Mn3L2(µ-OH)(OAc)]ClO4 (H3L = 1-[N-(2-pyridylmethyl),N-(2-hydroxybenzyl)amino]-3-[N'-(2-hydroxybenzyl),N'-(4-X-benzyl)amino]propan-2-ol; 1ClO4, X = Me; 2ClO4, X = H) have been prepared and characterized. X-ray diffraction analysis of 1ClO4 reveals that the complex cation possesses a Mn3(µ-alkoxo)2(µ-hydroxo)(µ-phenoxo)(4+) core, with the three Mn atoms bound to two fully deprotonated N3O3 chelating L(3-), one exogenous acetato ligand, and one hydroxo bridge, the structure of which is retained upon dissolution in acetonitrile or methanol. The three Mn atoms occupy the vertices of a nearly isosceles triangle (Mn1···Mn3 = 3.6374(12) Å, Mn2···Mn3 3.5583(13) Å, and Mn1···Mn2 3.2400(12) Å), with one substitution-labile site on the apical Mn ion occupied by terminally bound monodentate acetate. Temperature-dependent magnetic susceptibility studies indicate the presence of predominant antiferromagnetic intramolecular interactions between Mn(III) ions in 1ClO4. Complexes 1ClO4 and 2ClO4 decompose H2O2 at comparable rates upon initial binding of peroxide through acetate substitution, with retention of core structure during catalysis. Kinetic and spectroscopic studies suggest that these complexes employ the [Mn-(µ-oxo/aquo)-Mn](4+) moiety to activate peroxide, with the additional (µ-alkoxo)(µ-phenoxo)Mn(µ-alkoxo) metallobridge carrying out a structural function.

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A novel and efficient method for preparing [Mn(III)(O2)(L)](+) complexes using electrochemically generated superoxide is reported, with the reaction probed by low temperature electronic absorption and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopic techniques.

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Electrochemical investigation of a boron-capped tris(glyoximato)cobalt clathrochelate complex in the presence of acid reveals that the catalytic activity toward hydrogen evolution results from an electrodeposition of cobalt-containing nanoparticles on the electrode surface at a modest cathodic potential. The deposited particles act as remarkably active catalysts for H(2) production in water at pH 7.

RESUMEN

We recently reported on the synthesis of a new pentadentate N(4)O ligand, tBuL(-), together with the X-ray diffraction structure of the corresponding mononuclear manganese(III)-hydroxo complex namely [(tBuL)Mn(III)OH](ClO(4)), (1 (ClO(4))). [El Ghachtouli et al. Energy Environ. Sci. 2011, 4, 2041.] In the present work, we evidence through electrochemical analysis that complex 1(+), in the presence of water, shows a peculiar behavior toward electron-transfer kinetics. The synthesis, single-crystal X-ray diffraction, and EPR spectroscopic characterization of two other mononuclear manganese(III)-chlorido and methoxo complexes-namely, [(tBuL)Mn(III)Cl](PF(6)), (2(PF(6))) and [(tBuL)Mn(III)OMe](ClO(4)), (3(ClO(4)))-are also reported. 2(PF(6)) and 3(ClO(4)) compounds will serve as reference complexes for the electron-transfer kinetics investigation. The peculiar behavior of 1(ClO(4)) is attributed to the specificity of hydroxide anion as ligand presumably allowing intermolecular hydrogen-bonding interactions and thus affecting electron-transfer properties.

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We have developed a pentadentate N(4)O ligand scaffold with a benzimidazole group placed in a rigid fashion to develop hydrogen bonding interaction with the ligand in the sixth position. The mononuclear Mn(II) complex with a water molecule was isolated and characterized. We discuss the role of the outer sphere ligand in stabilising a Mn(II)-aquo complex.

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