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A number of epigenetic modulating chemicals are known to affect multiple generations of a population from a single ancestral exposure, thus posing transgenerational hazards. The present study aimed to establish a high-throughput (HT) analytical workflow for cost-efficient concentration-response analysis of epigenetic and phenotypic effects, and to support the development of novel Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) networks for DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitor-mediated transgenerational effects on aquatic organisms. The model DNMT inhibitor 5-azacytidine (5AC) and the model freshwater crustacean Daphnia magna were used to generate new experimental data and served as prototypes to construct AOPs for aquatic organisms. Targeted HT bioassays (DNMT ELISA, MS-HRM and qPCR) in combination with multigenerational ecotoxicity tests revealed concentration-dependent transgenerational (F0-F3) effects of 5AC on total DNMT activity, DNA promoter methylation, gene body methylation, gene transcription and reproduction. Top sensitive toxicity pathways related to 5AC exposure, such as apoptosis and DNA damage responses were identified in both F0 and F3 using Gaussian Bayesian network modeling. Two novel epigenetic AOP networks on DNMT inhibitor mediated one-generational and transgenerational effects were developed for aquatic organisms and assessed for the weight of evidence. The new HT analytical workflow and AOPs can facilitate future ecological hazard assessment of epigenetic modulating chemicals.

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The ability to detect founding populations of invasive species or rare species with low number of individuals is important for aquatic ecosystem management. Traditional approaches use historical data, knowledge of the species' ecology and time-consuming surveys. Within the past decade, environmental DNA (eDNA) has emerged as a powerful additional tracking tool. While much work has been done with animals, comparatively very little has been done with aquatic plants. Here we investigated the transportation and seasonal changes in eDNA concentrations for an invasive aquatic species, Elodea canadensis, in Norway. A specific probe assay was developed using chloroplast DNA to study the fate of the targeted eDNA through space and time. The spatial study used a known source of Elodea canadensis within Lake Nordbytjern 400 m away from the lake outlet flowing into the stream Tveia. The rate of disappearance of E. canadensis eDNA was an order of magnitude loss over about 230 m in the lake and 1550 m in the stream. The time series study was performed monthly from May to October in lake Steinsfjorden harbouring E. canadensis, showing that eDNA concentrations varied by up to three orders of magnitude, peaking during fall. In both studies, the presence of suspended clay or turbidity for some samples did not hamper eDNA analysis. This study shows how efficient eDNA tools may be for tracking aquatic plants in the environment and provides key spatial and temporal information on the fate of eDNA.

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Endocrine-disrupting contaminants have been associated with aberrant changes in epigenetic pathways in animals. In this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed bisphenol A (BPA) to search for associations between behavior and epigenetic mechanisms in fish. For concentration-dependent responses, embryos were exposed to a range of BPA concentrations (0.1 nM to 30 µM). Embryos were analyzed for locomotor activity at 3-, 4-, and 5-days post fertilization (dpf) in response to changing light conditions. Based on concentration-dependent effects on behavior and gene expression, 10 µM BPA [from 24 to 96 hours post fertilization (hpf)] was used for a whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) study searching for genome-wide impacts on DNA methylation. Over the examined concentration ranges, hyperactivity was demonstrated for exposures to 0.001 µM BPA in comparison to embryos exposed to lower or higher BPA concentrations. Transcriptional analysis showed significant effects at >0.01 µM BPA for two genes related to DNA methylation (dnmt1, cbs). BPA exposure did not significantly affect global DNA methylation, but 20,474 differentially methylated (DM) sites in 4,873 genes were identified by WGBS analysis. Most DM sites were identified within gene bodies. The genes with the most DM sites were all protocadherin 2 gamma subfamily genes, related to axon targeting, synaptic development and neuronal survival. KEGG pathways most significantly affected by BPA exposure were phosphatidylinositol signaling system, followed by VEGF and MAPK signaling pathways. This study shows that BPA can affect zebrafish embryo swimming activity at very low concentrations as well as affecting numerous methylated sites in genes which are overrepresented in functionally relevant metabolic pathways. In conclusion, altered methylation patterns of genes associated with nervous system development might lead to abnormal swimming activity.

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Coralline algae form extensive maerl and rhodolith habitats that support a rich biodiversity. Calcium carbonate harvesting as well as trawling activities threatens this ecosystem. Eleven species were recorded so far as maerl-forming in NE Atlantic, but identification based on morphological characters is unreliable. As for most red algae, we now use molecular characters to resolve identification of these taxa. However, obtaining DNA sequences requires time and resource demanding methods. The purpose of our study was to improve methods for achieving simple DNA extraction, amplification, sequencing and sequence analysis to allow robust identification of maerl species and other coralline algae. Our novel and easy DNA preparation method for coralline algae was of sufficient quality for qPCR amplification and sequencing of all 47 tested samples. The new psbA qPCR assay successfully amplified a 350 bp fragment identifying six species and uncovering two new Operational Taxonomic Units. Molecular results were corroborated with anatomical examination using i.e. scanning electron microscopy. Finally, the qPCR assay was coupled with High Resolution Melt analysis that successfully differentiated the closely related species Lithothamnion erinaceum and L. cf. glaciale. This DNA preparation and qPCR technique should vitalize coralline research by reducing time and cost associated with molecular systematics.

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OBJECTIVES: The aetiology of several human diarrhoeas has been increasingly associated with the presence of virulence factors rather than with the bacterial species hosting the virulence genes, exemplified by the sporadic emergence of new bacterial hosts. Two important virulence factors are the Shiga toxin (Stx) and the E. coli outer membrane protein (Eae) or intimin, encoded by the stx and eae genes, respectively. Although several polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocols target these virulence genes, few aim at detecting all variants or have an internal amplification control (IAC) included in a multiplex assay. The objective of this work was to develop a simple multiplex PCR assay in order to detect all stx and eae variants, as well as to detect bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae, also used as an IAC. RESULTS: The wecA gene coding for the production of the Enterobacterial Common Antigen was used to develop an Enterobacteriaceae specific qPCR. Universal primers for the detection of stx and eae were developed and linked to a wecA primer pair in a robust triplex PCR. In addition, subtyping of the stx genes was achieved by subjecting the PCR products to restriction digestion and semi-nested duplex PCR, providing a simple screening assay for human diarrhoea diagnostic.

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The Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, was introduced to Europe for aquaculture purposes, and has had a rapid and unforeseen northward expansion in northern Europe. The recent dramatic increase in number of C. gigas populations along the species' northern distribution limit has questioned the efficiency of Skagerrak as a dispersal barrier for transport and survival of larvae. We investigated the genetic connectivity and possible spreading patterns between Pacific oyster populations on the southern Norwegian coast (4 localities) and Swedish and Danish populations by means of DNA microsatellite analysis of adult oysters, and by simulating larvae drift. In the simulations we used a 3D oceanographic model to explore the influence of recent climate change (1990-2010) on development, survival, and successful spreading of Danish and Swedish Pacific oyster larvae to Norwegian coastal waters. The simulations indicated adequate temperature conditions for development, survival, and settlement of larvae across the Skagerrak in warm years since 2000. However, microsatellite genotyping revealed genetic differences between the Norwegian populations, and between the Norwegian populations and the Swedish and Danish populations, the latter two populations being more similar. This patchwork pattern of genetic dissimilarity among the Norwegian populations points towards multiple local introduction routes rather than the commonly assumed unidirectional entry of larvae drifted from Denmark and Sweden. Alternative origins of introduction and implications for management, such as forecasting and possible mitigation actions, are discussed.

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Avoiding complementarity between primers when designing a PCR assay constitutes a central rule strongly anchored in the mind of the molecular scientist. 3'-complementarity will extend the primers during PCR elongation using one another as template, consequently disabling further possible involvement in traditional target amplification. However, a 5'-complementarity will leave the primers unchanged during PCR cycles, albeit sequestered to one another, therefore also suppressing target amplification. We show that 5'-complementarity between primers may be exploited in a new PCR method called COMplementary-Primer-Asymmetric (COMPAS)-PCR, using asymmetric primer concentrations to achieve target PCR amplification. Moreover, such a design may paradoxically reduce spurious non-target amplification by actively sequestering the limiting primer. The general principles were demonstrated using 5S rDNA direct repeats as target sequences to design a species-specific assay for identifying Salmo salar and Salmo trutta using almost fully complementary primers overlapping the same target sequence. Specificity was enhanced by using 3'-penultimate point mutations and the assay was further developed to enable identification of S. salar x S. trutta hybrids by High Resolution Melt analysis in a 35 min one-tube assay. This small paradigm shift, using highly complementary primers for PCR, should help develop robust assays that previously would not be considered.

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A new label-free electrochemical DNA (E-DNA) biosensor using a custom synthesized ferrocenyl (Fc) double-stranded DNA intercalator as a redox marker is presented. Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) was co-immobilized on gold electrodes with 6-mecarpto-hexanol to control the surface density of the ssDNA probe, and hybridized with complementary DNA. The binding of the Fc intercalator to dsDNA was measured by differential pulse voltammetry. This new biosensor was optimized to allow the detection of single base pair mismatched sequences, able to detect as low as 10 pM target ssDNA with a dynamic range from 10 pM to 100 nM. DNA extracted from wastewater was analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction targeting human-specific mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The aim of this approach is to enable the analysis of population biomarkers in wastewater for the evaluation of public health using wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). The E-DNA biosensor was employed to detect human-specific mtDNA from wastewater before and after PCR amplification. The results demonstrate the feasibility of detecting human DNA biomarkers in wastewater using the developed biosensor, which may allow the further development of DNA population biomarkers for public health using WBE.

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BACKGROUND: The green sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis has a wide circumpolar distribution and plays a key role in coastal ecosystems worldwide by destructively grazing macroalgae beds and turn them into marine deserts, so-called barren grounds. In the past decades, large established kelp forests have been overgrazed and transformed to such barren grounds on the Norwegian coast. This has important repercussions for the coastal diversity and production, including reproduction of several fish species relying on the kelp forests as nurseries. Genetic diversity is an important parameter for the study and further anticipation of this large scale phenomenon. FINDINGS: Microsatellites were developed using a Norwegian S. droebachiensis individual primarily for the study of Northeast Atlantic populations. The 10 new microsatellite loci were amplified using M13 forward tails, enabling the use of M13 fluorescent tagged primers for multiplex reading. Among these loci, 2 acted polysomic and should therefore not be considered useful for population genetic analysis. We screened 96 individuals sampled from 4 different sites along the Norwegian coast which have shown unexpected diversity. CONCLUSIONS: The new microsatellite loci should be a useful resource for further research into connectivity among S. droebachiensis populations, and assessing the risks for spreading and new overgrazing events.

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Early molecular events with correlation to disease, such as aberrant DNA methylation, emphasize the importance of DNA methylation as a potential environmental biomarker. Currently, little is known regarding how various environmental contaminants and mixtures alter DNA methylation in aquatic organisms, and testing is both time- and labor-consuming. Therefore, the potential of an in vitro screening method was evaluated by exposing zebrafish liver cells (ZF-L) for 96 h to the nonmutagenic model substance 5'-azacytidine (AZA), as well as a selection of environmental pollutants such as sodium arsenite (NAS), 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2), and diethylstilbestrol (DES). Six single genes with reported and anticipated importance in cancer were selected for analysis. Methylation of gene promoter areas was monitored by bisulfite conversion and high-resolution melt (HRM) analysis after exposure to sublethal concentrations of the test compounds. Subsequently, results were validated with direct bisulfite sequencing. Exposure of ZF-L cells to 0.5 µM AZA for 96 h led to hypomethylation of genes with both low and high basal methylation indicating similarity to mechanism of action in mammals. Further, NAS, EE2, and DES were shown to induce significant alterations in methylation, whereas TCDD did not. It was concluded that cell line exposure in combination with HRM may provide an initial contaminant screening assay by quantifying DNA methylation alterations with high throughput capacity. In addition, the rapid determination of effects following contaminant exposure with this in vitro system points to the possibility for new in vivo applications to be useful for environmental monitoring.

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Chlamydia trachomatis is a leading cause of sexually transmitted infection. Diagnostic methods with easy non-invasive sample collection are important to increase testing and hence to reduce the spread of this infection. To enable more use of urine samples in C. trachomatis diagnostics, automation is an absolute requirement since obtaining high-quality DNA from urine specimens involves extensive processing. Here, we present a study in which a new automated sample preparation method, BUGS'n BEADS STI (BnB STI), was used up-front of the BDProbeTec ET end point analysis and compared with the full BDProbeTec ET method to analyze C. trachomatis in 1002 urine samples. The BnB STI system represents a new concept within magnetic sample preparation in which bacteria are first isolated from the sample material followed by purification of bacterial nucleic acid using the same magnetic particles. Similar sensitivity and specificity were obtained with both methods. None of the samples processed with BnB STI inhibited the BDProbeTec ET test whereas 1.8% showed inhibition when processed according to the manual BDProbeTect ET DNA preparation method. Moreover, the average MOTA scores obtained with the BnB STI system were 48% higher for all amplification controls and 57% higher for positive samples, compared to the manual sample preparation. Based on these results and the significant reduction in hands-on-time for urine sample processing, the automated BnB STI sample preparation method was implemented for routine analysis of C. trachomatis from urine samples.

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