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Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) plays a pivotal role in the cholinergic system, and its inhibition is sought after in a wide range of applications, from insect control to Alzheimer's disease treatment. While the primary physiological isoforms of AChE are membrane-bound proteins, most assays for discovering new, safer, and potent inhibitors are conducted using commercially available soluble isoforms, such as the electric eel AChE (eeAChE). In this study, we conducted a comparative analysis of the activity and selectivity to phenolic inhibitors of recombinant human AChE, eeAChE and a mutant variant of human AChE known as dAChE4. Despite numerous mutations, dAChE4 closely resembles its parental protein and serves as a suitable model for monomeric human AChE. We also established an in vitro system of membrane-bound AChE to create a model that closely mimics the physiological isoforms. This system ensures the proper work of the enzyme and allowed us to control the exact concentration of enzyme and lipids per assay.

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Connexin (Cxs) hemichannels participate in several physiological and pathological processes, but the molecular mechanisms that control their gating remain elusive. We aimed at determining the role of extracellular cysteines (Cys) in the gating and function of Cx46 hemichannels. We studied Cx46 and mutated all of its extracellular Cys to alanine (Ala) (one at a time) and studied the effects of the Cys mutations on Cx46 expression, localization, and hemichannel activity. Wild-type Cx46 and Cys mutants were expressed at comparable levels, with similar cellular localization. However, functional experiments showed that hemichannels formed by the Cys mutants did not open either in response to membrane depolarization or removal of extracellular divalent cations. Molecular-dynamics simulations showed that Cys mutants may show a possible alteration in the electrostatic potential of the hemichannel pore and an altered disposition of important residues that could contribute to the selectivity and voltage dependency in the hemichannels. Replacement of extracellular Cys resulted in "permanently closed hemichannels", which is congruent with the inhibition of the Cx46 hemichannel by lipid peroxides, through the oxidation of extracellular Cys. These results point to the modification of extracellular Cys as potential targets for the treatment of Cx46-hemichannel associated pathologies, such as cataracts and cancer, and may shed light into the gating mechanisms of other Cx hemichannels.

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Connexins are a family of proteins that can form two distinct types of channels: hemichannels and gap junction channels. Hemichannels are composed of six connexin subunits and when open allow for exchanges between the cytoplasm and the extracellular milieu. Gap junction channels are formed by head-to-head docking of two hemichannels in series, each one from one of two adjacent cells. These channels allow for exchanges between the cytoplasms of contacting cells. The lens is a transparent structure located in the eye that focuses light on the retina. The transparency of the lens depends on its lack of blood irrigation and the absence of organelles in its cells. To survive such complex metabolic scenario, lens cells express Cx43, Cx46 and Cx50, three connexins isoforms that form hemichannels and gap junction channels that allow for metabolic cooperation between lens cells. This review focuses on the roles of Cx46 hemichannels and gap junction channels in the lens under physiological conditions and in the formation of cataracts, with emphasis on the modulation by posttranslational modifications.

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Astrocytes release gliotransmitters via connexin 43 (Cx43) hemichannels into neighboring synapses, which can modulate synaptic activity and are necessary for fear memory consolidation. However, the gliotransmitters released, and their mechanisms of action remain elusive. Here, we report that fear conditioning training elevated Cx43 hemichannel activity in astrocytes from the basolateral amygdala (BLA). The selective blockade of Cx43 hemichannels by microinfusion of TAT-Cx43L2 peptide into the BLA induced memory deficits 1 and 24 h after training, without affecting learning. The memory impairments were prevented by the co-injection of glutamate and D-serine, but not by the injection of either alone, suggesting a role for NMDA receptors (NMDAR). The incubation with TAT-Cx43L2 decreased NMDAR-mediated currents in BLA slices, effect that was also prevented by the addition of glutamate and D-serine. NMDARs in primary neuronal cultures were unaffected by TAT-Cx43L2, ruling out direct effects of the peptide on NMDARs. Finally, we show that D-serine permeates through purified Cx43 hemichannels reconstituted in liposomes. We propose that the release of glutamate and D-serine from astrocytes through Cx43 hemichannels is necessary for the activation of post-synaptic NMDARs during training, to allow for the formation of short-term and subsequent long-term memory, but not for learning per se.

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[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01574.].

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Purified membrane proteins are most frequently studied solubilized in detergent, but the properties of detergent micelles are very different from those of lipid bilayers. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in studying membrane proteins under conditions that resemble the membrane protein native environment more closely. Although there are indications of differences between membrane proteins in detergent and in lipid bilayers, direct functional and structural comparisons are very hard to find. Nanodiscs have been established as a new platform that consists of two molecules of a membrane scaffold protein that surround a small lipid-bilayer patch. Here, we undertook the task of comparing the function and conformational states of the transport protein MsbA in detergent and nanodiscs using ATPase activity and luminescence resonance energy transfer (LRET) measurements to assess differences in activity and conformational states, respectively. MsbA is a prototypical member of the ATP binding cassette protein superfamily. MsbA activity was higher in nanodiscs vs detergent, which had clear structural correlates: an increase in the fraction of molecules displaying closed nucleotide-binding domain dimers in the apo state, and a decrease in the distance of the "dissociated" nucleotide-binding domains. Our LRET studies support the notion that the widely separated nucleotide binding domains observed in the MsbA x-ray structures in detergent do not correspond to physiological conformations. Although our studies focus on a particular ABC exporter, the possibility of similar environment effects on other membrane proteins should be carefully considered.

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Connexin (Cx) proteins form gap junction channels (GJC) and hemichannels that a allow bidirectional flow of ions and metabolites between the cytoplasm and extracellular space, respectively. Under physiological conditions, hemichannels have a very low probability of opening, but in certain pathologies, hemichannels activity can increase and induce and/or accelerate cell death. Several mechanisms control hemichannels activity, including phosphorylation and oxidation (i.e., S-nitrosylation). Recently, the effect of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as linoleic acid (LA), were found to modulate Cxs. It has been seen that LA increase cell death in bovine and human lens cells. The lens is a structure allocated in the eye that highly depends on Cx for the metabolic coupling between its cells, a condition necessary for its transparency. Therefore, we hypothesized that LA induces lens cells death by modulating hemichannel activity. In this work, we characterized the effect of LA on hemichannel activity and survival of HLE-B3 cells (a human lens epithelial cell line). We found that HLE-B3 cells expresses Cx43, Cx46, and Cx50 and can form functional hemichannels in their plasma membrane. The extracellular exposure to 10-50 µM of LA increases hemichannels activity (dye uptake) in a concentration-dependent manner, which was reduced by Cx-channel blockers, such as the Cx-mimetic peptide Gap27 and TATGap19, La3+, carbenoxolone (CBX) and the Akt kinase inhibitor. Additionally, LA increases intracellular calcium, which is attenuated in the presence of TATGap19, a specific Cx43-hemichannel inhibitor. Finally, the long exposure of HLE-B3 cells to LA 20 and 50 µM, reduced cell viability, which was prevented by CBX. Moreover, LA increased the proportion of apoptotic HLE-B3 cells, effect that was prevented by the Cx-mimetic peptide TAT-Gap19 but not by Akt inhibitor. Altogether, these findings strongly suggest a contribution of hemichannels opening in the cell death induced by LA in HLE-B3 cells. These cells can be an excellent tool to develop pharmacological studies in vitro.

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Gap-junction channels (GJCs) are formed by head-to-head association of two hemichannels (HCs, connexin hexamers). HCs and GJCs are permeable to ions and hydrophilic molecules of up to Mr ~1 kDa. Hearing impairment of genetic origin is common, and mutations of connexin 26 (Cx26) are its major cause. We recently identified two novel Cx26 mutations in hearing-impaired subjects, L10P and G109V. L10P forms functional GJCs with slightly altered voltage dependence and HCs with decrease ATP/cationic dye selectivity. G109V does not form functional GJCs, but forms functional HCs with enhanced extracellular Ca(2+) sensitivity and subtle alterations in voltage dependence and ATP/cationic dye selectivity. Deafness associated with G109V could result from decreased GJCs activity, whereas deafness associated to L10P may have a more complex mechanism that involves changes in HC permeability.

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Connexins form hemichannels at undocked plasma membranes and gap-junction channels (GJCs) at intercellular contacting zones. Under physiological conditions, hemichannels have low open probabilities, but their activation under pathological conditions, such as ischemia, induces and/or accelerates cell death. Connexin 46 (Cx46) is a major connexin of the lens, and mutations of this connexin induce cataracts. Here, we report the effects of linoleic acid (LA) on the electrical properties of Cx46 GJCs and hemichannels expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. LA has a biphasic effect, increasing hemichannel current at 0.1 µM and decreasing it at concentrations of 100 µM or higher. The effects of extracellular and microinjected LA conjugated to coenzyme A (LA-CoA) suggest that the current activation site is accessible from the intracellular but not extracellular compartment, whereas the current inhibitory site is either located in a region of the hemichannel pore inaccessible to intracellular LA-CoA, or requires crossing of LA through an organelle membrane. Experiments with other fatty acids demonstrated that the block of hemichannels depends on the presence of a hydrogenated double bond at position 9 and is directly proportional to the number of double bonds. Experiments in paired oocytes expressing Cx46 showed that LA does not affect GJCs. The block by unsaturated fatty acids reported here opens the possibility that increases in the concentration of these lipids in the lens induce cataract formation by blocking Cx46 hemichannels.

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Gap junction channels are formed by two hemichannels in series (one from each neighboring cell), which are in turn connexin hexamers. Under normal conditions, hemichannels at the plasma membrane are mostly closed but can be opened by changes in membrane voltage, extracellular divalent ion concentration, phosphorylation, pH, and redox potential. Recently, interactions between channels have been found to modulate the activity of several ion channels, including gap junction channels. Here, we studied whether connexin46 (Cx46) hemichannels display such behavior. We studied the response of the Cx46 hemichannels expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes to consecutive depolarization pulses. Hemichannels formed by wild-type Cx46 and a COOH-terminal domain truncation mutant (Cx46DeltaCT) were activated by voltage pulses. When the hemichannels were depolarized repeatedly from -60 mV to +80 mV, the amplitude of the outward and tail currents increased progressively with successive pulses. This phenomenon ("current facilitation") depended on the amplitude of the depolarization, reaching a maximum at approximately +60 mV in oocytes expressing Cx46, and on the interval between pulses, disappearing with intervals longer than about 20 s. The current facilitation was also present in oocytes expressing Cx46DeltaCT, ruling out a primary role of this domain in the facilitation. Nominal removal of divalent cations from the extracellular side caused maximal current activation of Cx46 and Cx46DeltaCT hemichannels and prevented facilitation. The results suggest that Cx46 hemichannels show a cooperative activation independent of their COOH-terminal domain.

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La administración intravenosa de amilorida aumentó la excrección de Na y redujo la excreción de K. Estos cambios fueron debidos, principalmente, a modificaciones en las concentraciones urinarias de estos iones ya que la diuresis prácticamente no se modificó. No hubo cambios en la concentración plasmática de Mg ni en su excreción urinaria. De estos resultados concluimos que, en perros no sometidos a una sobrecarga de Mg, el transporte de Mg en los segmentos distales, donde actúa la amilorida, no es alterado por este diurético. El cambio en la diferencia de potencial eléctrico transepitelial provocado por la amilorida no afectaría el transporte de Mg, el cual no estaría relacionado con el transporte de Na

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En 5 sujetos con función renal normal, la administración intravenosa de dopamina a una tasa de 6 ug/kg/m, produjo vasodilatación renal, incrementó la excreción urinaria de Na y redujo la osmolaridad urinaria, sin modificar la filtración glomerular. Estos efectos fueron revertidos con la administración intravenosa de indometacina (2 mg/kg), sugiriendo que los efectos renales de la dopamina podrían depender de una producción normal de prostaglandinas

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La administración intravenosa de amilorida aumentó la excrección de Na y redujo la excreción de K. Estos cambios fueron debidos, principalmente, a modificaciones en las concentraciones urinarias de estos iones ya que la diuresis prácticamente no se modificó. No hubo cambios en la concentración plasmática de Mg ni en su excreción urinaria. De estos resultados concluimos que, en perros no sometidos a una sobrecarga de Mg, el transporte de Mg en los segmentos distales, donde actúa la amilorida, no es alterado por este diurético. El cambio en la diferencia de potencial eléctrico transepitelial provocado por la amilorida no afectaría el transporte de Mg, el cual no estaría relacionado con el transporte de Na (AU)

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En 5 sujetos con función renal normal, la administración intravenosa de dopamina a una tasa de 6 ug/kg/m, produjo vasodilatación renal, incrementó la excreción urinaria de Na y redujo la osmolaridad urinaria, sin modificar la filtración glomerular. Estos efectos fueron revertidos con la administración intravenosa de indometacina (2 mg/kg), sugiriendo que los efectos renales de la dopamina podrían depender de una producción normal de prostaglandinas (AU)

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La furosemida es una droga natriurética y vasodilatadora renal que además, tiene la capacidad de aumentr los niveles de prostaglandinas renales. La relación entre los efectos renales de la furosemida y su capacidad de estimular al sistema de las prostaglandinas es controvertida. En el presente trabajo se estudió dicha interrelación mediante un inhibidor de la síntesis de prostaglandinas, la indometacina. En los perros pretratados con indometacina la furosemida no aumentó el flujo plasmático renal efectivo (depuración plasmática de Hippuran 131I), pero sí lo hizo en los animales no tratados con indometacina. En cuanto al efecto natriurético de la furosemida, si bien la indometacina redujo la excreción fraccional de Na, la administración posterior de la furosemida la elevó a un valor similar al obtenido por la infusión de furosemida en los perros no tratados con indometacina. En conclusión el presente trabajo sugiere que el efecto vasodilatador renal de la furosemida, pero no el natriurético, requiere para producirse una síntesis normal de prostaglandinas

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La furosemida es una droga natriurética y vasodilatadora renal que además, tiene la capacidad de aumentr los niveles de prostaglandinas renales. La relación entre los efectos renales de la furosemida y su capacidad de estimular al sistema de las prostaglandinas es controvertida. En el presente trabajo se estudió dicha interrelación mediante un inhibidor de la síntesis de prostaglandinas, la indometacina. En los perros pretratados con indometacina la furosemida no aumentó el flujo plasmático renal efectivo (depuración plasmática de Hippuran 131I), pero sí lo hizo en los animales no tratados con indometacina. En cuanto al efecto natriurético de la furosemida, si bien la indometacina redujo la excreción fraccional de Na, la administración posterior de la furosemida la elevó a un valor similar al obtenido por la infusión de furosemida en los perros no tratados con indometacina. En conclusión el presente trabajo sugiere que el efecto vasodilatador renal de la furosemida, pero no el natriurético, requiere para producirse una síntesis normal de prostaglandinas (AU)

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