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OBJECTIVES: Tracheal suctioning is a routine procedure in mechanically ventilated children, however, in severe head-injured patients it can result in potential deleterious increase in intracranial pressure. We aimed to assess the effect of tracheal lidocaine administration on intracranial pressure during tracheal suctioning. DESIGN: Prospective randomized controlled crossover study. SETTING: PICU of a tertiary hospital. PATIENTS: Eleven patients with severe head trauma (Glasgow Coma Scale score 4-8) INTERVENTIONS:: Lidocaine (1.5 mg/kg) or saline solution was endotracheally instilled before a standardized tracheal suctioning maneuver. Each patient received both treatments in a crossover design. Cerebral hemodynamic and systemic and ventilatory effects were assessed at four time points: in baseline (T0), within 2 minutes (T1), 5 minutes (T2), and 15 minutes after tracheal instillation (T3). The 2-minute time interval around tracheal suctioning was used to assess each treatment efficacy MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS:: The time course of intracranial pressure was different throughout the study in both treatment groups, with a significant increase of intracranial pressure from 14.82 ± 3.48 to 23.27 ± 9.06 with lidocaine (p = 0.003) and from 14.73 ± 2.41 to 30.45 ± 13.14 with saline (p = 0.02). The mean variation in intracranial pressure immediately after tracheal suctioning was smaller with lidocaine instillation than saline (8.45 vs 15.72 mm Hg; p = 0.006). Patients treated with lidocaine returned to baseline intracranial pressure value at 5 minutes after tracheal suctioning whereas those receiving saline solution returned to baseline intracranial pressure value at 15 minutes. Although patients treated with lidocaine had no significant hemodynamic changes, patients receiving saline solution experienced a higher mean value of mean arterial pressure (99.36 vs 81.73 mm Hg; p = 0.004) at T1. CONCLUSIONS: This preliminary study showed that tracheal lidocaine instillation can attenuate increase in intracranial pressure induced by tracheal suctioning and favor a faster return to the intracranial pressure baseline levels without significant hemodynamic and ventilatory changes.

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BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Benzodiazepines and opioids are commonly used in pediatric intensive care unit. However, there is no previous study assessing the use of administering these drugs combined (single solution) or separately. We sought to evaluate the impact of these 2 different methods of providing sedation/analgesia in pediatric intensive care unit. METHODS: One hundred twelve patients mechanically ventilated for more than 48 hours were randomized to receive a protocolized sedation regime comprising midazolam and fentanyl either separately (group 1, 57 patients) or combined as a single solution (group 2, 55 patients). Primary end point variable was the cumulated dose of midazolam and fentanyl. RESULTS: The median cumulated doses of both fentanyl (0.19 vs 0.37 mg/kg, P < .05) and midazolam (28.8 vs 45.6 mg/kg, P < .05) required in group 2 were higher when compared with those of group 1. Moreover, group 2 patients had a significantly longer time of vasopressor drugs requirement and a higher number of patients developing tolerance. CONCLUSION: Patients who received a single solution of midazolam and fentanyl had a higher cumulated dose of compared with those patients who did not. The potential risk for long-term neurologic effects on developing brains associated with this finding should be considered.

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OBJECTIVES: Determine prevalence, risk factors and outcomes of iatrogenic pneumothoraces (IPs) in a pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). METHODS: Patients with IP (cases) and patients without IP (controls) were retrieved from a 5-year prospective cohort of 645 PICU patients who received mechanical ventilation (MV). RESULTS: Twenty cases and eighty controls were assessed. The overall prevalence of IP was 3%. Eleven IPs were procedure-related IP and 9 MV related. Performance of thoracic invasive procedures (odds ratio 11) was the significant IP predictor in the logistic regression analysis. IP incidence was higher within 12 hours. There were no differences between the groups concerning duration of MV, length of PICU and hospital stays. IP patients had a significantly higher mortality rate (p = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: Performance of thoracic invasive procedures was strongly associated with IPs events in mechanically ventilated children. Many of these events may potentially be preventable with the implementation of quality improvement programs.

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AIM: Although the modified Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score (CPIS) has been used to guide treatment decisions in adults with ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), paediatric studies are lacking. We assessed a modified CPIS tool to define VAP resolution and identify treatment failure at an early stage. METHODS: We identified 70 mechanically ventilated children with VAP according to the Center for Disease Control criteria. Modified CPIS was initially measured at VAP onset and then three and five days afterwards. Children were defined as low risk or high risk based on a cut-off score of six. RESULTS: There were 50 high-risk and 20 low-risk patients. Culture results were positive in 64% of the high-risk patients and just 10% of the low-risk patients. Patients on adequate therapy significantly improved their CPIS scores by day three, regardless of the likelihood of VAP. A lack of score improvement demonstrated sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 83% when it came to detecting treatment failure. The area under the receiver operating curve was 0.92. CONCLUSION: Serial modified CPIS measurements showed that low-risk patients with negative cultures at day three should be considered for a short course of antibiotics. In contrast, high-risk patients with no score improvement were potentially failing their treatment.

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RATIONALE: Although the modified clinical pulmonary infection score (mCPIS) has been endorsed by national organizations, only a very few pediatric studies have assessed it for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). METHODS: Seventy children were prospectively included if they fulfilled the diagnosis criteria for VAP referenced by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The primary outcome was performance of mCPIS calculated on day 1 to accurately identify VAP as defined by microbiological data. RESULTS: The data showed that an mCPIS of 6 or higher had a sensitivity of 94%, specificity of 50%, positive predictive value of 64%, negative predictive value of 90%, a positive likelihood ratio of 1.88, and a negative likelihood ratio of 0.11. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was 0.70. A positive posttest result increased the disease probability by 15.4%, whereas a negative test result reduced the probability by 38.6%. Patients with an mCPIS of 6 or higher had longer length of mechanical ventilation and pediatric intensive care unit stay compared with patients with an mCPIS lower than 6. CONCLUSION: The mCPIS had a clinically acceptable performance, and it can be a helpful screening tool for VAP diagnosis. An mCPIS lower than 6 was highly able in distinguishing patients without VAP. Despite its high sensitivity and negative predictive value of this score, further studies are required to assess the use of mCPIS in guiding therapeutic decisions.

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BACKGROUND: The absence of pediatric surgeons in many centers results in restriction of patient access to pediatric subspecialty care. The aim of this study was to compare the outcomes of children treated for appendicitis by pediatric surgeons (PS) and by general surgeons (GS). METHODS: This was a retrospective review of the charts of all consecutive patients <16 years old who underwent appendectomy during 2 years The primary outcome measure was the overall rate of complications. Secondary outcome measures included length of hospital stay (LOS), symptom duration, time from emergency department diagnosis to surgery, and readmission rate within 30 days. RESULTS: A total of 94 patients (PS group, n = 66; GS group, n = 28) were included. PS patients were younger. For patients with complicated appendicitis, complications were significantly more prevalent in the GS group (57% vs 15%; P = 0.0001). Median LOS was not significantly different between the two groups for complicated appendicitis, but patients with non-complicated appendicitis had a significant longer LOS when treated by PS (3.74 ± 1.5 vs 2.57 ± 1.21 days; P = 0.0041). Patients in the PS group had a prolonged use of antibiotics (2 vs 4 days; P = 0.001), and longer LOS (3 vs 4 days; P = 0.0018). CONCLUSIONS: Overall complication rates were similar between PS and GS. Complications were significantly more prevalent in patients with complicated appendicitis who were treated by GS.

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BACKGROUND: Although unplanned postoperative admission to PICUs (unplanned intensive care admission [UIA]) is uncommon, it might be associated with increased costs, morbidity, and mortality. However, detailed knowledge of risk factors and outcomes after UIA in children is still lacking. OBJECTIVES: To determine prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes of UIA patients compared with non-UIA patients. DESIGN: Case-control study. SETTING: A tertiary university-affiliated hospital. PATIENTS: All postoperative children admitted to the PICU were monitored for UIA. About 28 cases and 88 controls were included. INTERVENTIONS: none. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The overall prevalence of UIA was 2.6%. About 28 patients (24.1%) of 116 had unplanned admission. Multiple logistic regression revealed that factors predicting UIA were airway abnormality (odds ratio 16.2, 95% confidence interval 2.65-99.6), anesthetic factors (odds ratio 5.8, 95% confidence interval 1.06-32.2), and hypoxia intraoperative (odds ratio 7.4, 95% confidence interval 1.21-46.24). Procedures on abdomen, emergency surgery, combined anesthesia, and occurrence of intraoperative adverse events were also risk factors for an UIA. Patients with UIA had longer duration of mechanical ventilation than non-UIA patients (4.5 vs. 2 days, p = 0.01), but there were no differences in length of PICU and hospital stays. Preventable adverse events were detected in 25% of UIA children. CONCLUSIONS: Airway abnormality, anesthetic factors, and hypoxia intraoperative were risk factors associated with UIA. Although preventable events contribute significantly to unplanned PICU admissions, they constitute a room of opportunity in quality improvement programs.

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OBJECTIVE: To update the state of knowledge on unplanned extubations (UEs) in neonatal ICUs. This review focuses on the following topics: incidence, risk factors, reintubation after UE, outcomes, and prevention. METHODS: The MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Scielo, Lilacs, and Cochrane databases were searched for relevant publications from January 1, 1950, through January 30, 2012. Fifteen articles were selected for data abstraction. The search strategy included the following key words: "unplanned extubation," "accidental extubation," "self extubation," "unintentional extubation," "unexpected extubation," "inadvertent extubation," "unintended extubation," "spontaneous extubation," "treatment interference," and "airway accident." Study quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Grades of recommendation were assessed according to the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine's levels of evidence system. Studies with Newcastle-Ottawa scale score ≥ 5 that included appropriate statistical analysis were deemed of high methodological quality. RESULTS: The overall mean Newcastle-Ottawa scale score was 3.5. UE rates ranged from 0.14 to 5.3 UEs/100 intubation days, or 1% to 80.8%. Risk factors included restlessness/agitation (13-89%), poor fixation of endotracheal tube (8.5-31%), tube manipulation at the time of UE (17-30%), and performance of a patient procedure at bedside (27.5-51%). One study showed that every day on mechanical ventilation increased the UE risk 3% (relative risk 1.03, P < .001). The association between birth weight/gestational age and UE is controversial. Reintubation rates ranged from 8.3% to 100%. There is still a gap of information about strategies addressed to reduce the incidence of UE. The best method of endotracheal tube securement remains a controversial issue. CONCLUSIONS: Despite numerous publications on UE, there are few studies assessing preventive strategies for adverse events and there is a lack of randomized clinical trials. Recommendations are proposed based on the current available literature.

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Aminophylline exerts a renovascular effect, acting by adenosine receptor blockade or type IV phosphodiesterase inhibition. Clinically, these drugs have been used with furosemide to induce diuresis in adults and neonates. However, reports on use of aminophylline in diuretic-dependent children are limited to a few studies. We report a case series of four critically ill children unresponsive to furosemide continuous infusion who were subsequently given aminophylline as an adjunct diuretic in the treatment of fluid overload. No side effects were evident. Administration of aminophylline at low doses (3 mg/kg) successfully promoted increased urine output over the 6-h study period in all four children.

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PURPOSE: Nebulized L-epinephrine has been recommended for the treatment of viral croup. However, the few studies assessing its effect on post-extubation stridor (PES) have shown conflicting results. We compared the efficacy and safety of nebulized L-epinephrine at three different doses for the treatment of PES. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial including all consecutive children with a PES score of ≥4 (Westley score). The primary efficacy outcome was change in PES score at 40 min. A reduction of ≥2 points in stridor score was defined as clinically significant. A total of 96 patients were randomly assigned to receive one of three doses of nebulized L-epinephrine upon achieving a PES score of 4 or more following extubation. Stridor score and vital signs were recorded before treatment, and at 20, 40, 60 and 180 min after nebulization. RESULTS: Baseline characteristics were similar among all study groups. No significant difference was detected among the treatments based on change in Westley score by intent-to-treat analysis. In addition, the difference in the number of patients who clinically improved among the treatment groups was not significant (p = 0.54). Patients receiving 5 ml nebulized epinephrine had a significant increase of systolic and diastolic blood pressure at 40 and 180 min. CONCLUSION: Nebulized L-epinephrine at doses of 0.5, 2.5 and 5 ml demonstrated a lack of dose response in effect on PES and a modestly clinically significant increase in undesired side effects (heart rate and blood pressure) at higher doses.

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BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of intravenous ketamine-propofol admixture ("ketofol") in the same syringe for procedural sedation and analgesia in children undergoing bone marrow aspiration. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational pilot study. Patients aged between 4 and 12 years requiring sedation for bone marrow aspiration were included. Ketofol (1:1 mixture of ketamine 10 mg/mL and propofol 10 mg/mL) was given intravenously in 0.5 mg/kg aliquots each with a 1-min interval and titrated to reach sedation levels of 3 or 4 (Ramsay score). The primary outcome was patient satisfaction with the degree of sedation. Secondary outcomes included injection pain, total sedation time, recovery time, hemodynamic and respiratory parameters, and adverse events. RESULTS: A total of 20 patients were enrolled in the study. The median total dose of ketofol administered was 1.25 mg/kg each of propofol and ketamine (95%CI 0.77-2 mg/kg). The median score on the visual analog scale was 0 (extremely comfortable) (0-1.5; 95%CI 0.2-2.2). Median recovery time was 23 min (20.5-28 min; 95%CI 17.1-51.2). The incidence of injection pain was 2/20. Two patients had transient diplopia and one child reported dreams. No patients had hypotension, vomiting or required airway intervention. CONCLUSION: Ketofol provided effective sedation, which was reflected in the high degree of satisfaction recorded by children requiring procedural sedation and analgesia for bone marrow aspiration. We also observed rapid recovery and no clinically significant complications. A large number of patients is required to evaluate and validate these findings.

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BACKGROUND: Repeat head computed tomography (CT) is standard practice for traumatic brain injury (TBI) at many centers. The few studies available in children remain unclear over the value of repeat CT within 24 hours to 48 hours of lesion in such patients. The purpose of the present study was to assess the value of repeat cranial CT in children presenting moderate or severe TBI. METHODS: A retrospective study performed within a pediatric intensive care unit between January 2000 and December 2006. All patients with moderate and severe TBI who survived the first 24 hours after admission were included. Clinical data collected included age, lesion mechanism, time between first and second CTs, disease severity score at admission, and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) both at admission and day of repeat CT. RESULTS: A total of 63 children were assessed whose mean age was 72 months (48-112). The time between the first and the second CT scans averaged 25.78 hours +/- 13.75 hours (range, 6-48 hours). The reasons for ordering repeat CT scans were divided as follows: follow-up (78%), neurologic deterioration (20.4%), and increased intracranial pressure (1.6%). The change on the follow-up CT scan was compared with the GCS score. The GCS score was improved in 66.6% of patients, remained the same in 15.9%, and worsened in 17.5%. The appearance on the CT scans was better, the same or worse in 41.3%, 34.9%, and 23.8% of patients, respectively. There was a significant association between GCS and changes in findings on repeat CT (OR = 34.5, confidence interval [5.98-199.04], p = 0.000009). The positive and negative predictive values were 82% and 89%, respectively. One patient with a worsened GCS required surgical intervention based on the repeat CT scan. CONCLUSION: An unchanged or improving neurologic examination in children sustaining moderate or severe TBI who are appropriately monitored may be adequate to exclude the possibility of neurosurgical intervention and, hence, repeat head CT scan.

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BACKGROUND: There is a lack of studies evaluating procedural sedation for insertion of central venous catheters (CVC) in pediatric patients in emergency departments or pediatric intensive care units (PICU). This study was designed to evaluate whether there is a difference in the total sedation time for CVC insertion in nonintubated children receiving two sedation regimens. METHODS: Patients were prospectively randomized to receive either midazolam/fentanyl (M/F) or midazolam/ketamine (M/K) i.v. The Children's Hospital of Wiscosin Sedation Scale was used to score the sedation level. RESULTS: Fifty seven patients were studied (28 M/F and 29 M/K). Group M/F received midazolam (0.24 +/- 0.11 mg.kg(-1)) and fentanyl (1.68 +/- 0.83 microg.kg(-1)) and group M/K received midazolam (0.26 +/- 0.09 mg.kg(-1)) and ketamine (1.40 +/- 0.72 mg.kg(-1)). The groups were similar in age, weight, risk classification time and sedation level. Median total sedation times for M/F and M/K were 97 vs 105 min, respectively (P = 0.67). Minor complications occurred in 3.5% (M/F) vs 20.7% (M/K) (P = 0.03). M/F promoted a greater reduction in respiratory rate (P = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: In this study of nonventilated children in PICU undergoing central line placement, M/F and M/K provided a clinically comparable total sedation time. However, the M/K sedation regimen was associated with a higher rate of minor complications. A longer period of study is required to assess the efficacy and safety of these sedative agents for PICU procedures in nonintubated children.

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