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Cognition is a set of brain processes that allow the individual to interact with their environment. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the cerebral white matter of the brain cortex and spinal cord, leading to cognitive impairment (CI) in 40-60% of the patients. Many studies have determined that CI is linked to genetic risk factors. We aimed to evaluate the association between BDNF gene rs6265 polymorphism and cognitive impairment in Mexican patients with MS by performing a case-control study. Mestizo-Mexican patients diagnosed with MS based on McDonald's criteria were enrolled. Cases were MS patients with CI (n = 31) while controls were MS patients without CI (n = 31). To measure cognitive functioning in MS patients, a neuropsychological screening battery for MS (NSB-MS) was used. Genotyping of the rs6265 gene variant was performed using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) with TaqMan probes. The results showed no statistically significant differences in sociodemographic and disease variables between case and control groups. qPCR analysis showed that there were 68% Val/Val wild-type homozygotes, 29% Val/Met polymorphic heterozygotes, and 3% Met/Met polymorphic homozygotes. The presence of BDNF gene rs6265 polymorphism showed an increased probability (3.6 times) of global cognitive impairment.

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Suicide is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), every year, more than 700 thousand people die from this cause. Therefore, suicide is a public health issue. The complex interaction between different factors causes suicide; however, depression is one of the most frequent factors in people who have attempted suicide. Several studies have reported that vitamin D deficiency may be a relevant risk factor for depression, and vitamin D supplementation has shown promising effects in the adjunctive treatment of this mood disorder. Among the beneficial mechanisms of vitamin D, it has been proposed that it may enhance serotonin synthesis and modulate proinflammatory cytokines since low serotonin levels and systemic inflammation have been associated with depression and suicide. The present narrative review shows the potential pathogenic role of vitamin D deficiency in depression and suicide and the potential benefits of vitamin D supplementation to reduce their risk.

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BACKGROUND: Between 50-60% of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) patients have cognitive alterations. There are several batteries to assess cognitive impairments in MS, however, few exist for Latin Americans. The objective of this study is to evaluate the neuropsychological profile of Mexican people with MS (PwMS) and assess the utility of Norma Latina, a new battery for cognitive assessment in Latin America, in differentiating cognitive test performance between PwMS and healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: 100 PwMS and 100 HCs from Mexico were evaluated with the Norma Latina battery. The following analyses were conducted: 1) low-percentiles of each participant were calculated, 2) Area Under the Curve was used to determine whether the battery discriminated between PwMS and HCs, 3) four composite scores were calculated, and student's t-test was used to compare groups according to these domains. RESULTS: PwMS obtained a greater number of impaired scores compared to HCs, principally in executive function. The battery successfully discriminated between PwMS and HCs, with the strongest capacity to discriminate in the executive functions, and the weakest in memory. CONCLUSION: Establishing validation of a neuropsychological battery for Mexican PwMS will help to more accurately detect cognitive alterations, which will guide the decisions of professionals in terms of cognitive rehabilitation.

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Background: Research from high-income countries on substance use among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) adults is growing; however, limited empirical research exists on LGBT adults in Mexico. Filling this gap is critical as LGBT adults experience unique stressors that may place them at risk for substance use-related health outcomes. Objectives: This study sought to characterize substance use prevalence and magnitude among a convenience sample of Mexican LGBT adults. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey was conducted using a sample of Spanish-speaking, self-identified LGBT adults (n = 92) residing in Mexico who were recruited through online forums of LGBT-focused organizations. Descriptive and frequency analyses were conducted. Results: Participants predominantly identified as cisgender men (n = 44) and gay/lesbian (n = 68). Participants reported high rates of past 90-day legal substance use (>93% for alcohol and >57% for tobacco). The most commonly reported illicit drug used in the past 90 days was marijuana (>29%). Conclusions: While the sample reported lower prevalence and magnitude of substance use relative to other Mexican or United States LGBT samples, the findings highlight that legal and illicit substance use presents health risks for Mexican LGBT individuals. LGBT identity-affirming substance use treatment may reduce substance use-related health burden among this population.

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The Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) is an information processing speed test. The aim of this study was to compare the SDMT across three samples: the USA, Mexico, and Argentina. The hypothesis is that performance will vary based on native language and cultural differences between these countries. The SDMT was administered to 129 healthy volunteers. Participants from the USA performed better than participants from Argentina and Mexico (p < .01), and no differences were observed between the latter groups (p = .15). Processing speed differs between the studied populations of Latin America and Anglo-America. Possible interpretations of this result are presented.

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BACKGROUND: Memory impairments commonly afflict individuals with MS. While evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation treatments are available in English, the lack of such interventions in Spanish is an important barrier to care for Hispanics with MS. There is class I evidence that the modified Story Memory Technique (mSMT) improves learning in English. This intervention has been translated and adapted into Spanish. OBJECTIVE: To examine the preliminary efficacy of the Spanish mSMT to improve learning in Mexicans with MS. METHODS: Twenty individuals with relapsing-remitting MS were randomized to treatment (n = 10) or placebo control (n = 10) groups. The Spanish mSMT is a 10-session intervention that teaches imagery and context to facilitate learning. The control condition was matched to the treatment condition in treatment duration, and stimulus content and presentation. Participants completed baseline and post-treatment neuropsychological assessments. RESULTS: Individuals who received the Spanish mSMT showed significant improvements in learning and life satisfaction relative to the control group. Also observed were a near-moderate effect size on perceived memory complaints and a moderate-to-large effect size on the family's perception of the patient's competency. CONCLUSIONS: The Spanish mSMT showed preliminary efficacy in improving learning deficits in Mexicans with MS, and such improvements may extend to other domains.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of low scores for two neuropsychological tests with five total scores that evaluate learning and memory functions. METHOD: N = 5402 healthy adults from 11 countries in Latin America and the commonwealth of Puerto Rico were administered the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) and the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT-R). Two-thirds of the participants were women, and the average age was 53.5 ± 20.0 years. Z-scores were calculated for ROCF Copy and Memory scores and HVLT-R Total Recall, Delayed Recall, and Recognition scores, adjusting for age, age2, sex, education, and interaction variables if significant for the given country. Each Z-score was converted to a percentile for each of the five subtest scores. Each participant was categorized based on his/her number of low scoring tests in specific percentile cutoff groups (25th, 16th, 10th, 5th, and 2nd). RESULTS: Between 57.3% (El Salvador) and 64.6% (Bolivia) of the sample scored below the 25th percentile on at least one of the five scores. Between 27.1% (El Salvador) and 33.9% (Puerto Rico) scored below the 10th percentile on at least one of the five subtests. Between 5.9% (Chile, El Salvador, Peru) and 10.3% (Argentina) scored below the 2nd percentile on at least one of the five scores. CONCLUSIONS: Results are consistent with other studies that found that low scores are common when multiple neuropsychological outcomes are evaluated in healthy individuals. Clinicians should consider the higher probability of low scores when evaluating learning and memory using various sets of scores to reduce false-positive diagnoses of cognitive deficits.

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El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer las características de la práctica neuropsicológica en México, incluyendo la formación profesional, la situación laboral actual, el proceso de evaluación y diagnóstico, rehabilitación, docencia e investigación. Participaron 171 profesionales en México, quienes respondieron una encuesta electrónica entre el 1 de julio del 2013 y el 1 de enero del 2014. El 76% indicó haber obtenido su entrenamiento en neuropsicología durante el postgrado y, aunque indicaron estar muy satisfechos con su labor, su satisfacción con el salario fue menor. La mayoría trabajan con personas con problemas de aprendizaje (78%) y trastornos de atención e hiperactividad (74%). El 91% se dedica a evaluación y diagnóstico, 61% a rehabilitación, 67% a docencia y 60% a investigación. Los problemas más comunes fueron la falta de datos normativos (63%) y el alto coste de los test (58%). Las barreras más observadas en el desarrollo de la neuropsicología fueron la falta de colaboración entre los profesionales y la falta de programas de formación clínica. Durante las últimas décadas se han logrado importantes avances a nivel profesional en el campo de la neuropsicología en México. Sin embargo, aún quedan aspectos por mejorar como el establecimiento de criterios para la regulación de la práctica neuropsicológica en el país.

The objective of this study was to analyze the characteristics of the profession of neuropsychology in Mexico, including the background, professional training, current work situation, evaluation and diagnosis procedures, rehabilitation, teaching, and research. 171 professionals from Mexico completed an online survey between July 1, 2013 and January 1 of 2014. 76% indicated having obtained their training in neuropsychology in a postgraduate program, also to be very satisfied with their jobs, but less satisfied with their salary. The majority works with individuals with learning difficulties (78%) and attention and hyperactivity disorder (74%). 91% works in evaluation and diagnosis, 61% in rehabilitation, 67% in teaching, and 60% in research. Some of the most common problems with the instruments were the lack of normative data (63%) and their high cost (58%). The most common barriers for the development of neuropsychology in Mexico were the lack of collaboration between professionals and the lack of clinical training programs. Even though there have been important progresses in the field of professional neuropsychological practice during the last past decades in Mexico, there are still some aspects to improve, like the establishment of standards for the regulation in the country.